HARVARD EDUCATIONAL REVIEW

Lee S. Shulman xây dựng nền tảng cho cải cách giảng dạy dựa trên một quan niệm về giảng dạy nhấn mạnh đến sự hiểu biết và lập luận, sự biến đổi và sự phản ánh. "Sự nhấn mạnh này là hợp lý," ông viết, "bởi sự kiên quyết mà theo đó nghiên cứu và chính sách đã trắng trợn bỏ qua những khía cạnh của giảng dạy trong quá khứ." Để trình bày và biện minh cho quan điểm này, Shulman trả lời bốn câu hỏi: Các nguồn gốc của cơ sở tri thức cho giảng dạy là gì? Làm thế nào để có thể khái niệm hóa những nguồn này? Các quá trình lý luận và hành động sư phạm là gì? và Những hệ quả cho chính sách giảng dạy và cải cách giáo dục là gì? Các câu trả lời — được thông tin bởi triết học, tâm lý học và số lượng ngày càng tăng của nghiên cứu tình huống dựa trên những người thực hành trẻ tuổi và có kinh nghiệm — đi xa hơn nhiều so với những giả định và sáng kiến cải cách hiện tại. Kết quả đối với những người thực hành giáo dục, học giả và nhà hoạch định chính sách là sự chuyển hướng lớn trong cách giảng dạy được hiểu và giáo viên được đào tạo và đánh giá.

Bài báo này đã được chọn cho số đặc biệt tháng 11 năm 1986 về "Giáo viên, Giảng dạy, và Đào tạo Giáo viên", nhưng xuất hiện ở đây do những yêu cầu cấp bách của việc xuất bản.

How can good educational practice move beyond pockets of excellence to reach a much greater proportion of students and educators? While many children and young adults in school districts and communities around the country have long benefited from the tremendous accomplishments of successful teachers, schools, and programs, replicating this success on a larger scale has proven to be a difficult and vexing issue. In this article, Richard Elmore addresses this problem by analyzing the role of school organization and incentive structures in thwarting large-scale adoption of innovative practices close to the "core" of educational practice. Elmore then reviews evidence from two attempts at large-scale reform in the past — the progressive movement and the National Science Foundation curriculum reform projects — to evaluate his claims that ambitious large-scale school reform efforts, under current conditions, will be ineffective and transient. He concludes with four detailed recommendations for addressing the issue of scale in improving practice in education.

Drawing upon recent research findings and upon a case study of a child learning to talk and to read, Catherine Snow outlines the important similarities in the development of both language and literacy. The characteristics of parent-child interaction which support language acquisition—semantic contingency, scaffolding, accountability procedures,and the use of routines—also facilitate early reading and writing development. The author dismisses the explanation that variations in the level of literacy in the home are responsible for social class differences in school achievement. To explain such differences,Snow emphasizes distinctive ways in which middle-class families prepare preschoolers to understand and produce decontextualized language.

Supporting undergraduate achievement in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines is paramount to ensuring our nation's continued scientific and technological advancement. In this quantitative study, Lorelle Espinosa examines the effect of precollege characteristics, college experiences, and institutional setting on the persistence of undergraduate women of color in STEM majors and also investigates how this pathway might differ for women of color in comparison to their White peers. She utilized hierarchical generalized linear modeling (HGLM) to examine the experiences of 1,250 women of color and 891 White women attending 135 institutions nationwide. Results revealed the paramount role of women's college experiences. Women of color who persisted in STEM frequently engaged with peers to discuss course content, joined STEM-related student organizations, participated in undergraduate research programs, had altruistic ambitions, attended private colleges,and attended institutions with a robust community of STEM students. Negative predictors of persistence include attending a highly selective institution.

In this article, Betty Achinstein and Rodney Ogawa examine the experiences of two new teachers who resisted mandated "fidelity" to Open Court literacy instruction in California. These two case studies challenge the portrayal of teacher resistance as driven by psychological deficiency and propose instead that teachers engage in "principled resistance" informed by professional principles. They document that within prescriptive instructional programs and control-oriented educational policies, teachers have a limited ability to implement professional principles, including diversified instruction, high expectations, and creativity. In this environment, teachers who resist experience professional isolation and schools experience teacher attrition. Through these two cases, Achinstein and Ogawa express concern about the negative impact of educational reforms that are guided by technical and moralistic control.

In this article, Donna Deyhle presents the results of a decade-long ethnographic study of the lives, both in and out of school, of Navajo youth in a border reservation community. She describes the racial and cultural struggle between Navajos and Anglos and the manifestation of that struggle in schools and the workplace. While utilizing these theories' central insights, but then moves beyond them. While differences in culture play a role in the divisions between Anglos and Navajos, Deyhle asserts that these differences intertwine with power relations in the larger community, and that Navajo school success and failure are best understood as part of this process of racial conflict. Navajos, subjected to discrimination in the workplace and a vocationally centered assimilationist curriculum in schools, are more academically successful when they are more secure in their traditional culture. This study demonstrates that those students who embrace this life-affirming vision both gain a solid place in their society and are more successful in the Anglo world of the school.

In this article, Julian Vasquez Heilig, Keffrelyn Brown, and Anthony Brown offer findings from a close textual analysis of how the Texas social studies standards address race, racism, and communities of color. Using the lens of critical race theory, the authors uncover the sometimes subtle ways that the standards can appear to adequately address race while at the same time marginalizing it—the “illusion of inclusion.” Their study offers insight into the mechanisms of marginalization in standards and a model of how to closely analyze such standards, which, the authors argue, is increasingly important as the standards and accountability movements continue to grow in influence.

Traditional approaches to helping developing countries have often played down human development in favor of production of physical and economic resources. It is on this premise that L. David Brown presents a case for the combined use of people-centered development and participatory research as a tool for maximizing local human resources to deal with local concerns. In building his case, Brown defines participatory research as a legitimate form of inquiry, drawing some distinctions between it and more traditional forms of research. He illustrates his point with a brief discussion of a research project that involved farmers from several villages in India.