Child Development Perspectives

Abstract— Charting change in behavior as a function of age and investigating longitudinal relations among constructs are primary goals of developmental research. Traditionally, researchers rely on a single measure (e.g., scale score) for a given construct for each person at each occasion of measurement, assuming that measure reflects the same construct at each occasion. With multiple indicators of a latent construct at each time of measurement, the researcher can evaluate whether factorial invariance holds. If factorial invariance constraints are satisfied, latent variable scores at each time of measurement are on the same metric and stronger conclusions are warranted. This article discusses factorial invariance in longitudinal studies, contrasting analytic approaches and highlighting strengths of the multiple‐indicator approach to modeling developmental processes.

Poverty is a powerful factor that can alter lifetime developmental trajectories in cognitive, socioemotional, and physical health outcomes. Most explanatory work on the underlying psychological processes of how poverty affects development has focused on parental investment and parenting practices, principally responsiveness. Our primary objective in this article was to describe a third, complementary pathway—chronic stress and coping—that may also prove helpful in understanding the developmental impacts of early childhood poverty throughout life. Disadvantaged children are more likely than their wealthier peers to confront a wide array of physical stressors (e.g., substandard housing, chaotic environments) and psychosocial stressors (e.g., family turmoil, separation from adult caregivers). As exposure to stressors accumulates, physiological response systems that are designed to handle relatively infrequent, acute environmental demands are overwhelmed. Chronic cumulative stressors also disrupt the self‐regulatory processes that help children cope with external demands.

Những trải nghiệm phân biệt chủng tộc và sắc tộc gây ra những mối đe dọa nghiêm trọng đối với sự phát triển và phúc lợi của trẻ em thuộc các nhóm thiểu số về chủng tộc và sắc tộc. May mắn thay, không phải tất cả thanh niên trải qua sự phân biệt đều dễ bị tổn thương trước những tác động tiêu cực của nó. Bằng chứng ngày càng tăng chỉ ra rằng có một số yếu tố về chủng tộc và sắc tộc có thể thúc đẩy sự phát triển tích cực của thanh niên và bảo vệ chống lại những tác động có thể gây hại của những khó khăn liên quan đến chủng tộc và sắc tộc. Bài viết này tóm tắt các xu hướng nghiên cứu mới nổi và kết luận liên quan đến các tác động "thúc đẩy" và "bảo vệ" của danh tính chủng tộc và sắc tộc, giáo dục xã hội sắc tộc, cũng như định hướng văn hóa, cùng với một số cơ chế có thể giải thích cho những đặc tính có lợi của chúng. Bài viết kết thúc với một cuộc thảo luận ngắn gọn về những cân nhắc quan trọng và hướng nghiên cứu trong tương lai về các quá trình khả năng phục hồi liên quan đến chủng tộc và sắc tộc ở thanh niên thiểu số.

In this article, we consider the broad applicability of latent class analysis (LCA) and related approaches to advance research on child development. First, we describe the role of person‐centered methods such as LCA in developmental research, and review prior applications of LCA to the study of development and related areas of research. Then we present practical considerations when applying LCA in developmental research, including model selection and statistical power. Finally, we introduce several recent methodological innovations in LCA, including causal inference in LCA, predicting a distal outcome from LC membership, and LC moderation (in which LCA quantifies multidimensional moderators of effects in observational and experimental studies), and we discuss their potential to advance developmental science. We conclude with suggestions for ongoing developmental research using LCA.

Abstract— Effortful control (EC) and executive function (EF) are 2 constructs related to children’s self‐regulation that have historically been the subject of research in separate fields, with EC primarily the focus of temperament research and EF the focus of cognitive neuroscience and clinical psychology. This article selectively reviews and compares the EC and EF literature. The review indicates considerable similarities and overlaps in the definitions, core components, and measurement of EC and EF. Differences between the 2 literatures seem to primarily reflect differences in research focus as influenced by each field’s “tradition” rather than “real” differences in EC and EF as developmental constructs. Thus, developing an integrated theory of self‐regulation encompassing the EC and EF perspectives is critical for reducing overlap and confusion in future research. The article provides a number of recommendations on how to integrate the theory and methodology of EC and EF in future research for (a) the components and organization of self‐regulation, (b) the relation of self‐regulation to children’s adaptive functions, (c) the neurological basis of self‐regulation and its development, and (d) the development and evaluation of interventions targeting children’s self‐regulation.

Abstract— This article considers the effects of psychosocial stress on child development and describes mechanisms through which early stress in the context of poverty affects the functioning of neural networks that underlie executive functions and self‐regulation. It examines the effects of early experience on glucocorticoid and catecholamine levels that influence neural activity in areas of the brain associated with executive functions, primarily as studied in animal models. Finally, it considers the strengths and limitations of this research, its relevance to understanding stress reactivity from the perspective of biological sensitivity to context, and the implications for the study of risk and resilience processes and early intervention to prevent developmental delays.

The COVID‐19 global pandemic and the resulting economic, health, and educational disruptions have upset all aspects of young people’s lives. The pandemic’s reach will likely continue in the near term and as psychological and academic trajectories unfold over time. In this article, we draw on the central tenets of life course theory—intertwined developmental trajectories, linked lives, and stratification systems (Elder, 1998)—to inform understanding of potential adverse effects of the COVID‐19 pandemic on children’s and adolescents’ adjustment and well‐being, as well as mechanisms and processes that may buffer or exacerbate the pandemic’s negative impact. We review empirical evidence on the impact of previous macro‐level crises (e.g., the Great Recession) to illustrate how life course theory can aid developmental scientists in examining the effects of COVID‐19 on children’s development. We conclude with recommendations for research.

ABSTRACT— This paper explores the possibility that adolescence may be a sensitive period for the development of spirituality. Evidence suggests that many of the normative developmental characteristics of adolescence may make teenagers more responsive to spiritual overtures. We review research on the characteristics of adolescent psychological development in conjunction with research on spirituality. On the basis of this research, we hypothesize that adolescents may be more likely than individuals in other age groups to engage in spiritual exploration, have a conversion experience, and make spiritual commitments that endure throughout the life span.

Income instability is an important and understudied dimension of the established empirical relation between family income and children's healthy development. Frequent fluctuations in income may influence daily processes and routines of family life, but the nature of such effects also may vary by specific patterns of income instability, parents' responses, and children's characteristics. In this article, we review existing theory and research on income, family functioning, and child development to better understand the potential implications of income instability for children's development. We also integrate theoretical insights from developmental psychology, economics, sociology, and social neuroscience to propose a set of testable hypotheses for social science investigations on this topic.