Wiley

Trong khi phần lớn hóa học hữu cơ truyền thống tập trung vào việc chuẩn bị và nghiên cứu tính chất của các phân tử đơn lẻ, một phần ngày càng quan trọng của hoạt động nghiên cứu hóa học hiện nay liên quan đến việc hiểu và sử dụng bản chất của tương tác giữa các phân tử. Hai lĩnh vực tiêu biểu của sự phát triển này là hóa học siêu phân tử và nhận dạng phân tử. Các tương tác giữa các phân tử được chi phối bởi các lực liên phân tử với các tính chất về năng lượng và hình học ít được hiểu rõ hơn so với các liên kết hóa học cổ điển giữa các nguyên tử. Tuy nhiên, trong số các tương tác mạnh nhất trong số này, có các liên kết hydro, với tính chất định hướng được hiểu rõ hơn ở cấp độ cục bộ (nghĩa là, đối với một liên kết hydro đơn lẻ) hơn nhiều loại tương tác không liên kết khác. Tuy nhiên, phương tiện để đặc trưng hóa, hiểu và dự đoán các hệ quả của nhiều liên kết hydro trong các phân tử, và sự hình thành kết quả của các hợp chất phân tử (ở cấp độ vi mô) hoặc tinh thể (ở cấp độ vĩ mô) vẫn còn là một bí ẩn lớn. Một trong những phương pháp tiếp cận hệ thống đầy hứa hẹn để giải quyết bí ẩn này ban đầu được phát triển bởi M. C. Etter quá cố, người đã áp dụng lý thuyết đồ thị để nhận ra và sau đó sử dụng các mẫu liên kết hydro nhằm hiểu và thiết kế tinh thể phân tử. Khi làm việc với những ý tưởng ban đầu của Etter, sức mạnh và khả năng ứng dụng tiềm năng của phương pháp này được công nhận một mặt, và mặt khác, nhu cầu phát triển và mở rộng hệ thống chính thức của Etter ban đầu được công nhận rõ ràng. Nhằm cho mục đích sau đó mà chúng tôi ban đầu đã thực hiện xem xét này.

A crystal of an organic compound is the ultimate supermolecule, and its assembly, governed by chemical and geometrical factors, from individual molecules is the perfect example of solid‐state molecular recognition. Implicit in the supramolecular description of a crystal structure is the fact that molecules in a crystal are held together by noncovalent interactions. The need for rational approaches towards solid‐state structures of fundamental and practical importance has led to the emergence of crystal engineering, which seeks to understand intermolecular interactions and recognition phenomena in the context of crystal packing. The aim of crystal engineering is to establish reliable connections between molecular and supramolecular structure on the basis of intermolecular interactions. Ideally one would like to identify substructural units in a target supermolecule that can be assembled from logically chosen precursor molecules. Indeed, crystal engineering is a new organic synthesis, and the aim of this article is to show that rather than being only nominally relevant to organic chemistry, this subject is well within the mainstream, being surprisingly similar to traditional organic synthesis in concept. The details vary because one is dealing here with intermolecular interactions rather than with covalent bonds; so this article is divided into two parts. The first is concerned with strategy, highlighting the conceptual relationship between crystal engineering and organic synthesis and introduces the term supramolecular synthon. The second part emphasizes methodology, that is, the chemical and geometrical properties of specific intermolecular interactions.

Inorganic metal–oxygen cluster anions form a class of compounds that is unique in its topological and electronic versatility and is important in several disciplines. Names such as Berzelius, Werner, and Pauling appear in the early literature of the field. These clusters (so‐called isopoly‐ and heteropolyanions) contain highly symmetrical core assemblies of MO_x units (M = V, Mo, W) and often adopt quasi‐spherical structures based on Archimedean and Platonic solids of considerable topological interest. Understanding the driving force for the formation of high‐nuclearity clusters is still a formidable challenge. Polyoxoanions are important models for elucidating the biological and catalytic action of metal–chalcogenide clusters, since metal–metal interactions in the oxo clusters range from very weak (virtually none) to strong (metal–metal bonding) and can be controlled by choice of metal (3d, 4d, 5d), electron population (degree of reduction), and extent of protonation. Mixed‐valence vanadates, in particular, show novel capacities for unpaired electrons, and the magnetic properties of these complexes may be tuned in a stepwise manner. Many vanadates also act as cryptands and clathrate hosts not only for neutral molecules and cations but also for anions, whereby a remarkable “induced self‐assembly process” often occurs. Polyoxometalates have found applications in analytical and clinical chemistry, catalysis (including photocatalysis), biochemistry (electron transport inhibition), medicine (antitumoral, antiviral, and even anti‐HIV activity), and solid‐state devices. These fields are the focus of much current research. Metal–oxygen clusters are also present in the geosphere and possibly in the biosphere. The mixed–valence vanadates contribute to an understanding of the extremely versatile geochemistry of the metal. The significant differences between the chemistry of the polyoxoanions and that of the thioanions of the same elements is of relevance to heterogeneous catalysis, bioinorganic chemistry, and veterinary medicine.

Starburst dendrimers are three‐dimensional, highly ordered oligomeric and polymeric compounds formed by reiterative reaction sequences starting from smaller molecules—“initiator cores” such as ammonia or pentaerythritol. Protecting group strategies are crucial in these syntheses, which proceed via discrete “Aufbau” stages referred to as generations. Critical molecular design parameters (CMDPs) such as size, shape, and surface chemistry may be controlled by the reactions and synthetic building blocks used. Starburst dendrimers can mimic certain properties of micelles and liposomes and even those of biomolecules and the still more complicated, but highly organized, building blocks of biological systems. Numerous applications of these compounds are conceivable, particularly in mimicking the functions of large biomolecules as drug carriers and immunogens. This new branch of “supramolecular chemistry” should spark new developments in both organic and macromolecular chemistry.

Can binding sites be produced in organic or inorganic polymers—similar to those in antibodies—which are able to recognize molecules and which may have catalytic action? In this article we review a method, analogous to a mechanism of antibody formation proposed earlier, by which in the presence of interacting monomers a cross‐linked polymer is formed around a molecule that acts as a template. After removal of the template, an imprint containing functional groups capable of chemical interaction remains in the polymer. The shape of the imprint and the arrangement of the functional groups are complementary to the structure of the template. If chiral templates are used, the success of the imprinting process can be assessed by the ability of the polymer to resolve the racemate of the template molecule. Through optimization of the process has led to chromatographic separation factors of α = 4–8, and to base line separations. There is also great interest in the surface imprinting of solid materials and monolayers. In all cases, the structure of the polymeric matrix in the imprinted materials and the function of the binding groups are of crucial importance. The mechanisms of imprinting and molecular recognition of substrates are by now well understood. A large number of potential applications for this class materials are being intensively developed, for example in the chromatogrphic resolution of recemates, and as artificial antibodies, chemosensors, and selective catalysts. The use of similarly produced materials as enzyme models is also of great interest.

Addition of 4‐dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) accelerates the dicyclohexylcarbo‐diimide (DCC)‐activated esterification of carboxylic acids to such an extent that side reactions are eliminated and even sensitive acids such 2,5‐cyclohexadiene‐1‐carboxylic acid readily form the tert‐butyl ester. DMAP has so far been used mainly as acylation catalyst. equation image

The topological analysis of chiral molecular models has provided the framework of a general system for the specification of their chirality. The application, made in and before 1956, of this system to organic‐chemical configurations is generally retained, but is redefined with respect to certain types of structure, largely in the light of experience gained since 1956 in the Beilstein Institute and elsewhere. The system is now extended to deal, on the one hand, with organic‐chemical conformations, and, on the other, with inorganic‐chemical configurations to ligancy six. Matters arising in connexion with the transference of chiral specifications from model to name are considered, notably that of the symbiosis in nomenclature of expressions of the general system and of systems of confined scope.

For corrigendum see DOI:10.1002/anie.196605111

The proton occupies a special position as a promoter and mediator in chemical reactions occurring in solution. Many reactions in organic chemistry are catalysed by acids or bases; likewise, most enzymes contain active groups which promote acid‐base catalysis. To understand the reaction mechanisms involved, it is necessary to identify the elementary steps as well as their course in time. Systematic investigation of these elementary steps as well as their course in time. Systematic investigation of these elementary steps has become possible only with the development of new methods for studying very fast reactions. The present paper reviews the information obtained in this type of investigation. The result is a relatively complete picture of the elementary proton transfer mechanisms and a comprehensive description of the modes and laws of acid‐base and enzymatic catalysis.

The chemistry of N‐heterocyclic carbenes has long been limited to metal coordination compounds derived from azolium precursors, a development that was started by Öfele and Wanzlick in 1968. Since free carbenes are now available through the work of Arduengo (1991), a renaissance in this little‐recognized area of chemistry has occurred. A leading motive is the advantages of N‐heterocyclic carbenes as ligands in organometallic catalysts, where they extend the scope of application reached by phosphanes (functionalized, chiral, water‐soluble, and immobilized derivatives). The present review summarizes the state of the art with regard to synthesis, structure, bonding theory, metal coordination chemistry, and catalysis. Chelating, functionalized, chiral, and immobilized ligands can be generated and attached to metal centers in straightforward procedures under mild conditions. A wealth of new chemistry is thus opened. It is also shown how carbenes derived from imidazoles and triazoles behave as ligands in catalysis. It is reasonable to assume that N‐heterocyclic carbenes surpass the ubiquitous phosphanes as ligands in a number of organometallic catalytic reactions.