American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)

We describe monocrystalline graphitic films, which are a few atoms thick but are nonetheless stable under ambient conditions, metallic, and of remarkably high quality. The films are found to be a two-dimensional semimetal with a tiny overlap between valence and conductance bands, and they exhibit a strong ambipolar electric field effect such that electrons and holes in concentrations up to 10 ¹³ per square centimeter and with room-temperature mobilities of ∼10,000 square centimeters per volt-second can be induced by applying gate voltage.

Có một mối liên hệ sâu sắc và hữu ích giữa cơ học thống kê (hành vi của các hệ thống có nhiều mức độ tự do trong trạng thái cân bằng nhiệt ở một nhiệt độ xác định) và tối ưu hóa đa biến hoặc tổ hợp (tìm cực tiểu của một hàm số cho trước phụ thuộc vào nhiều tham số). Một sự tương đồng chi tiết với quá trình tôi kim loại cung cấp một khuôn khổ để tối ưu hóa các đặc tính của các hệ thống rất lớn và phức tạp. Mối liên hệ này với cơ học thống kê khám phá ra thông tin mới và cung cấp một góc nhìn lạ thường về các vấn đề và phương pháp tối ưu hóa truyền thống.

Systems as diverse as genetic networks or the World Wide Web are best described as networks with complex topology. A common property of many large networks is that the vertex connectivities follow a scale-free power-law distribution. This feature was found to be a consequence of two generic mechanisms: (i) networks expand continuously by the addition of new vertices, and (ii) new vertices attach preferentially to sites that are already well connected. A model based on these two ingredients reproduces the observed stationary scale-free distributions, which indicates that the development of large networks is governed by robust self-organizing phenomena that go beyond the particulars of the individual systems.

This article described three heuristics that are employed in making judgments under uncertainty: (i) representativeness, which is usually employed when people are asked to judge the probability that an object or event A belongs to class or process B; (ii) availability of instances or scenarios, which is often employed when people are asked to assess the frequency of a class or the plausibility of a particular development; and (iii) adjustment from an anchor, which is usually employed in numerical prediction when a relevant value is available. These heuristics are highly economical and usually effective, but they lead to systematic and predictable errors. A better understanding of these heuristics and of the biases to which they lead could improve judgments and decisions in situations of uncertainty.

The population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality.

Cooperation in organisms, whether bacteria or primates, has been a difficulty for evolutionary theory since Darwin. On the assumption that interactions between pairs of individuals occur on a probabilistic basis, a model is developed based on the concept of an evolutionarily stable strategy in the context of the Prisoner's Dilemma game. Deductions from the model, and the results of a computer tournament show how cooperation based on reciprocity can get started in an asocial world, can thrive while interacting with a wide range of other strategies, and can resist invasion once fully established. Potential applications include specific aspects of territoriality, mating, and disease.

Human mesenchymal stem cells are thought to be multipotent cells, which are present in adult marrow, that can replicate as undifferentiated cells and that have the potential to differentiate to lineages of mesenchymal tissues, including bone, cartilage, fat, tendon, muscle, and marrow stroma. Cells that have the characteristics of human mesenchymal stem cells were isolated from marrow aspirates of volunteer donors. These cells displayed a stable phenotype and remained as a monolayer in vitro. These adult stem cells could be induced to differentiate exclusively into the adipocytic, chondrocytic, or osteocytic lineages. Individual stem cells were identified that, when expanded to colonies, retained their multilineage potential.

Chúng tôi đã đo lường các đặc tính đàn hồi và độ bền phá vỡ nội tại của màng graphene dạng đơn lớp tự do bằng phương pháp nén nano trong kính hiển vi lực nguyên tử. Hành vi lực-chuyển vị được diễn giải theo khung phản ứng ứng suất-biến dạng đàn hồi phi tuyến và cho ra độ cứng đàn hồi bậc hai và bậc ba lần lượt là 340 newton trên mét (N m\n ^–1\n ) và –690 Nm\n ^–1\n . Độ bền phá vỡ là 42 N m\n ^–1\n và đại diện cho sức mạnh nội tại của một tấm không có khuyết tật. Những thông số này tương ứng với mô đun Young là\n E\n = 1.0 terapascals, độ cứng đàn hồi bậc ba\n D\n = –2.0 terapascals, và sức mạnh nội tại σ\n _int\n = 130 gigapascals cho than chì khối. Những thí nghiệm này thiết lập graphene là vật liệu mạnh nhất từng được đo lường, và cho thấy rằng các vật liệu nano hoàn hảo về mặt nguyên tử có thể được thử nghiệm cơ học đối với các biến dạng vượt xa khỏi vùng tuyến tính.

High-dimensional data can be converted to low-dimensional codes by training a multilayer neural network with a small central layer to reconstruct high-dimensional input vectors. Gradient descent can be used for fine-tuning the weights in such “autoencoder” networks, but this works well only if the initial weights are close to a good solution. We describe an effective way of initializing the weights that allows deep autoencoder networks to learn low-dimensional codes that work much better than principal components analysis as a tool to reduce the dimensionality of data.

A thermostable DNA polymerase was used in an in vitro DNA amplification procedure, the polymerase chain reaction. The enzyme, isolated from Thermus aquaticus , greatly simplifies the procedure and, by enabling the amplification reaction to be performed at higher temperatures, significantly improves the specificity, yield, sensitivity, and length of products that can be amplified. Single-copy genomic sequences were amplified by a factor of more than 10 million with very high specificity, and DNA segments up to 2000 base pairs were readily amplified. In addition, the method was used to amplify and detect a target DNA molecule present only once in a sample of 10 ⁵ cells.