HIV interactions with monocytes and dendritic cells: viral latency and reservoirs

Kallings LO: The first postmodern pandemic: 25 years of HIV/AIDS. J Intern Med. 2008, 263: 218-243.

Richman DD, Margolis DM, Delaney M, Greene WC, Hazuda D, Pomerantz RJ: The challenge of finding a cure for HIV infection. Science. 2009, 323: 1304-1307.

Abbas AK, Lichtman AH: Cellular and molecular immunology. 2003, Philadelphia, Pa.; London: W. B. Saunders, 5

Gonzalez-Mejia ME, Doseff AI: Regulation of monocytes and macrophages cell fate. Front Biosci. 2009, 14: 2413-2431.

Ziegler-Heitbrock L: The CD14+ CD16+ blood monocytes: their role in infection and inflammation. J Leukoc Biol. 2007, 81: 584-592.

Filion LG, Izaguirre CA, Garber GE, Huebsh L, Aye MT: Detection of surface and cytoplasmic CD4 on blood monocytes from normal and HIV-1 infected individuals. J Immunol Methods. 1990, 135: 59-69.

Naif HM, Li S, Alali M, Sloane A, Wu L, Kelly M, Lynch G, Lloyd A, Cunningham AL: CCR5 expression correlates with susceptibility of maturing monocytes to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Virol. 1998, 72: 830-836.

Arfi V, Riviere L, Jarrosson-Wuilleme L, Goujon C, Rigal D, Darlix JL, Cimarelli A: Characterization of the early steps of infection of primary blood monocytes by human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol. 2008, 82: 6557-6565.

Triques K, Stevenson M: Characterization of restrictions to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection of monocytes. J Virol. 2004, 78: 5523-5527.

Sonza S, Maerz A, Deacon N, Meanger J, Mills J, Crowe S: Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication is blocked prior to reverse transcription and integration in freshly isolated peripheral blood monocytes. J Virol. 1996, 70: 3863-3869.

Srichatrapimuk S, Auewarakul P: Resistance of monocyte to HIV-1 infection is not due to uncoating defect. Virus Res. 2007, 126: 277-281.

Wang X, Ye L, Hou W, Zhou Y, Wang YJ, Metzger DS, Ho WZ: Cellular microRNA expression correlates with susceptibility of monocytes/macrophages to HIV-1 infection. Blood. 2009, 113: 671-674.

Sung TL, Rice AP: miR-198 inhibits HIV-1 gene expression and replication in monocytes and its mechanism of action appears to involve repression of cyclin T1. PLoS Pathog. 2009, 5: e1000263-

Triboulet R, Mari B, Lin YL, Chable-Bessia C, Bennasser Y, Lebrigand K, Cardinaud B, Maurin T, Barbry P, Baillat V, et al: Suppression of microRNA-silencing pathway by HIV-1 during virus replication. Science. 2007, 315: 1579-1582.

Ahluwalia JK, Khan SZ, Soni K, Rawat P, Gupta A, Hariharan M, Scaria V, Lalwani M, Pillai B, Mitra D, Brahmachari SK: Human cellular microRNA hsa-miR-29a interferes with viral nef protein expression and HIV-1 replication. Retrovirology. 2008, 5: 117-

Collman R, Hassan NF, Walker R, Godfrey B, Cutilli J, Hastings JC, Friedman H, Douglas SD, Nathanson N: Infection of monocyte-derived macrophages with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Monocyte-tropic and lymphocyte-tropic strains of HIV-1 show distinctive patterns of replication in a panel of cell types. J Exp Med. 1989, 170: 1149-1163.

Wu L, KewalRamani VN: Dendritic-cell interactions with HIV: infection and viral dissemination. Nat Rev Immunol. 2006, 6: 859-868.

Nekhai S, Jeang KT: Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of HIV-1 gene expression: role of cellular factors for Tat and Rev. Future Microbiol. 2006, 1: 417-426.

Zheng L, Yang Y, Guocai L, Pauza CD, Salvato MS: HIV Tat protein increases Bcl-2 expression in monocytes which inhibits monocyte apoptosis induced by tumor necrosis factor-alpha-related apoptosis-induced ligand. Intervirology. 2007, 50: 224-228.

Leghmari K, Bennasser Y, Bahraoui E: HIV-1 Tat protein induces IL-10 production in monocytes by classical and alternative NF-kappaB pathways. Eur J Cell Biol. 2008, 87: 947-962.

Leghmari K, Bennasser Y, Tkaczuk J, Bahraoui E: HIV-1 Tat protein induces IL-10 production by an alternative TNF-alpha-independent pathway in monocytes: role of PKC-delta and p38 MAP kinase. Cell Immunol. 2008, 253: 45-53.

Sandanger O, Ryan L, Bohnhorst J, Iversen AC, Husebye H, Halaas O, Landro L, Aukrust P, Froland SS, Elson G, et al: IL-10 enhances MD-2 and CD14 expression in monocytes and the proteins are increased and correlated in HIV-infected patients. J Immunol. 2009, 182: 588-595.

Grunwald U, Fan X, Jack RS, Workalemahu G, Kallies A, Stelter F, Schutt C: Monocytes can phagocytose Gram-negative bacteria by a CD14-dependent mechanism. J Immunol. 1996, 157: 4119-4125.

Moore KW, de Waal Malefyt R, Coffman RL, O'Garra A: Interleukin-10 and the interleukin-10 receptor. Annu Rev Immunol. 2001, 19: 683-765.

Foster JL, Garcia JV: HIV-1 Nef: at the crossroads. Retrovirology. 2008, 5: 84-

Ma W, Mishra S, Gajanayaka N, Angel JB, Kumar A: HIV-1 Nef inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced IL-12p40 expression by inhibiting JNK-activated NFkappa B in human monocytic cells. J Biol Chem. 2008, 284: 7578-87.

Marini E, Tiberio L, Caracciolo S, Tosti G, Guzman CA, Schiaffonati L, Fiorentini S, Caruso A: HIV-1 matrix protein p17 binds to monocytes and selectively stimulates MCP-1 secretion: role of transcriptional factor AP-1. Cell Microbiol. 2008, 10: 655-666.

Boasso A, Hardy AW, Landay AL, Martinson JL, Anderson SA, Dolan MJ, Clerici M, Shearer GM: PDL-1 upregulation on monocytes and T cells by HIV via type I interferon: restricted expression of type I interferon receptor by CCR5-expressing leukocytes. Clin Immunol. 2008, 129: 132-144.

Meier A, Bagchi A, Sidhu HK, Alter G, Suscovich TJ, Kavanagh DG, Streeck H, Brockman MA, LeGall S, Hellman J, Altfeld M: Upregulation of PD-L1 on monocytes and dendritic cells by HIV-1 derived TLR ligands. Aids. 2008, 22: 655-658.

Sharpe AH, Wherry EJ, Ahmed R, Freeman GJ: The function of programmed cell death 1 and its ligands in regulating autoimmunity and infection. Nat Immunol. 2007, 8: 239-245.

Kinter AL, Godbout EJ, McNally JP, Sereti I, Roby GA, O'Shea MA, Fauci AS: The common gamma-chain cytokines IL-2, IL-7, IL-15, and IL-21 induce the expression of programmed death-1 and its ligands. J Immunol. 2008, 181: 6738-6746.

Merad M, Manz MG: Dendritic cell homeostasis. Blood. 2009, 113: 3418-3427.

Popov S, Chenine AL, Gruber A, Li PL, Ruprecht RM: Long-term productive human immunodeficiency virus infection of CD1a-sorted myeloid dendritic cells. J Virol. 2005, 79: 602-608.

Janas AM, Dong C, Wang JH, Wu L: Productive infection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in dendritic cells requires fusion-mediated viral entry. Virology. 2008, 375: 442-451.

Garcia E, Nikolic DS, Piguet V: HIV-1 replication in dendritic cells occurs through a tetraspanin-containing compartment enriched in AP-3. Traffic. 2008, 9: 200-214.

Merad M, Ginhoux F, Collin M: Origin, homeostasis and function of Langerhans cells and other langerin-expressing dendritic cells. Nat Rev Immunol. 2008, 8: 935-947.

de Witte L, Nabatov A, Pion M, Fluitsma D, de Jong MA, de Gruijl T, Piguet V, van Kooyk Y, Geijtenbeek TB: Langerin is a natural barrier to HIV-1 transmission by Langerhans cells. Nat Med. 2007, 13: 367-371.

de Jong MA, de Witte L, Oudhoff MJ, Gringhuis SI, Gallay P, Geijtenbeek TB: TNF-alpha and TLR agonists increase susceptibility to HIV-1 transmission by human Langerhans cells ex vivo. J Clin Invest. 2008, 118: 3440-3452.

Kawamura T, Koyanagi Y, Nakamura Y, Ogawa Y, Yamashita A, Iwamoto T, Ito M, Blauvelt A, Shimada S: Significant virus replication in Langerhans cells following application of HIV to abraded skin: relevance to occupational transmission of HIV. J Immunol. 2008, 180: 3297-3304.

Nair MP, Saiyed ZM, Nair N, Gandhi NH, Rodriguez JW, Boukli N, Provencio-Vasquez E, Malow RM, Miguez-Burbano MJ: Methamphetamine enhances HIV-1 infectivity in monocyte derived dendritic cells. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2009, 4: 129-139.

Talloczy Z, Martinez J, Joset D, Ray Y, Gacser A, Toussi S, Mizushima N, Nosanchuk JD, Goldstein H, Loike J, et al: Methamphetamine inhibits antigen processing, presentation, and phagocytosis. PLoS Pathog. 2008, 4: e28-

Duvall MG, Lore K, Blaak H, Ambrozak DA, Adams WC, Santos K, Geldmacher C, Mascola JR, McMichael AJ, Jaye A, et al: Dendritic cells are less susceptible to human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) infection than to HIV-1 infection. J Virol. 2007, 81: 13486-13498.

Fiorentini S, Riboldi E, Facchetti F, Avolio M, Fabbri M, Tosti G, Becker PD, Guzman CA, Sozzani S, Caruso A: HIV-1 matrix protein p17 induces human plasmacytoid dendritic cells to acquire a migratory immature cell phenotype. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008, 105: 3867-3872.

Chaudhry A, Das SR, Hussain A, Mayor S, George A, Bal V, Jameel S, Rath S: The Nef protein of HIV-1 induces loss of cell surface costimulatory molecules CD80 and CD86 in APCs. J Immunol. 2005, 175: 4566-4574.

Quaranta MG, Tritarelli E, Giordani L, Viora M: HIV-1 Nef induces dendritic cell differentiation: a possible mechanism of uninfected CD4(+) T cell activation. Exp Cell Res. 2002, 275: 243-254.

Meyers JH, Justement JS, Hallahan CW, Blair ET, Sun YA, O'Shea MA, Roby G, Kottilil S, Moir S, Kovacs CM, et al: Impact of HIV on cell survival and antiviral activity of plasmacytoid dendritic cells. PLoS ONE. 2007, 2: e458-

Groot F, van Capel TM, Kapsenberg ML, Berkhout B, de Jong EC: Opposing roles of blood myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells in HIV-1 infection of T cells: transmission facilitation versus replication inhibition. Blood. 2006, 108: 1957-1964.

Muller-Trutwin M, Hosmalin A: Role for plasmacytoid dendritic cells in anti-HIV innate immunity. Immunol Cell Biol. 2005, 83: 578-583.

Boasso A, Herbeuval JP, Hardy AW, Anderson SA, Dolan MJ, Fuchs D, Shearer GM: HIV inhibits CD4+ T-cell proliferation by inducing indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase in plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Blood. 2007, 109: 3351-3359.

Manches O, Munn D, Fallahi A, Lifson J, Chaperot L, Plumas J, Bhardwaj N: HIV-activated human plasmacytoid DCs induce Tregs through an indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-dependent mechanism. J Clin Invest. 2008, 118: 3431-3439.

Chougnet C, Gessani S: Role of gp120 in dendritic cell dysfunction in HIV infection. J Leukoc Biol. 2006, 80: 994-1000.

Martinson JA, Roman-Gonzalez A, Tenorio AR, Montoya CJ, Gichinga CN, Rugeles MT, Tomai M, Krieg AM, Ghanekar S, Baum LL, Landay AL: Dendritic cells from HIV-1 infected individuals are less responsive to toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands. Cell Immunol. 2007, 250: 75-84.

Tilton JC, Manion MM, Luskin MR, Johnson AJ, Patamawenu AA, Hallahan CW, Cogliano-Shutta NA, Mican JM, Davey RT, Kottilil S, et al: Human immunodeficiency virus viremia induces plasmacytoid dendritic cell activation in vivo and diminished alpha interferon production in vitro. J Virol. 2008, 82: 3997-4006.

Mandl JN, Barry AP, Vanderford TH, Kozyr N, Chavan R, Klucking S, Barrat FJ, Coffman RL, Staprans SI, Feinberg MB: Divergent TLR7 and TLR9 signaling and type I interferon production distinguish pathogenic and nonpathogenic AIDS virus infections. Nat Med. 2008, 14: 1077-1087.

Dong C, Janas AM, Wang JH, Olson WJ, Wu L: Characterization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication in immature and mature dendritic cells reveals dissociable cis- and trans-infection. J Virol. 2007, 81: 11352-11362.

Wang JH, Janas AM, Olson WJ, Wu L: Functionally distinct transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 mediated by immature and mature dendritic cells. J Virol. 2007, 81: 8933-8943.

McDonald D, Wu L, Bohks SM, KewalRamani VN, Unutmaz D, Hope TJ: Recruitment of HIV and its receptors to dendritic cell-T cell junctions. Science. 2003, 300: 1295-1297.

Wu L: Biology of HIV Mucosal Transmission. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2008, 3: 534-540.

Wang JH, Janas AM, Olson WJ, KewalRamani VN, Wu L: CD4 coexpression regulates DC-SIGN-mediated transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol. 2007, 81: 2497-2507.

Wang JH, Wells C, Wu L: Macropinocytosis and cytoskeleton contribute to dendritic cell-mediated HIV-1 transmission to CD4+ T cells. Virology. 2008, 381: 143-154.

Yu HJ, Reuter MA, McDonald D: HIV traffics through a specialized, surface-accessible intracellular compartment during trans-infection of T cells by mature dendritic cells. PLoS Pathog. 2008, 4: e1000134-

Cavrois M, Neidleman J, Kreisberg JF, Greene WC: In vitro derived dendritic cells trans-infect CD4 T cells primarily with surface-bound HIV-1 virions. PLoS Pathog. 2007, 3: e4-

Wang JH, Kwas C, Wu L: Intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, but not ICAM-2 and -3, is important for dendritic cell-mediated human immunodeficiency virus type-1 transmission. J Virol. 2009, 83: 4195-4204.

Groot F, Kuijpers TW, Berkhout B, de Jong EC: Dendritic cell-mediated HIV-1 transmission to T cells of LAD-1 patients is impaired due to the defect in LFA-1. Retrovirology. 2006, 3: 75-

Puigdomenech I, Massanella M, Izquierdo-Useros N, Ruiz-Hernandez R, Curriu M, Bofill M, Martinez-Picado J, Juan M, Clotet B, Blanco J: HIV transfer between CD4 T cells does not require LFA-1 binding to ICAM-1 and is governed by the interaction of HIV envelope glycoprotein with CD4. Retrovirology. 2008, 5: 32-

Gaiha GD, Dong T, Palaniyar N, Mitchell DA, Reid KB, Clark HW: Surfactant protein A binds to HIV and inhibits direct infection of CD4+ cells, but enhances dendritic cell-mediated viral transfer. J Immunol. 2008, 181: 601-609.

Wiley RD, Gummuluru S: Immature dendritic cell-derived exosomes can mediate HIV-1 trans infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006, 103: 738-743.

Izquierdo-Useros N, Naranjo-Gomez M, Archer J, Hatch SC, Erkizia I, Blanco J, Borras FE, Puertas MC, Connor JH, Fernandez-Figueras MT, et al: Capture and transfer of HIV-1 particles by mature dendritic cells converges with the exosome-dissemination pathway. Blood. 2009, 113: 2732-41.

Sowinski S, Jolly C, Berninghausen O, Purbhoo MA, Chauveau A, Kohler K, Oddos S, Eissmann P, Brodsky FM, Hopkins C, et al: Membrane nanotubes physically connect T cells over long distances presenting a novel route for HIV-1 transmission. Nat Cell Biol. 2008, 10: 211-219.

Sherer NM, Lehmann MJ, Jimenez-Soto LF, Horensavitz C, Pypaert M, Mothes W: Retroviruses can establish filopodial bridges for efficient cell-to-cell transmission. Nat Cell Biol. 2007, 9: 310-315.

St John EP, Zariffard MR, Martinson JA, Simoes JA, Landay AL, Spear GT: Effect of mucosal fluid from women with bacterial vaginosis on HIV trans-infection mediated by dendritic cells. Virology. 2009, 385: 22-27.

Nabatov AA, de Jong MA, de Witte L, Bulgheresi S, Geijtenbeek TB: C-type lectin Mermaid inhibits dendritic cell mediated HIV-1 transmission to CD4+ T cells. Virology. 2008, 378: 323-328.

Requena M, Bouhlal H, Nasreddine N, Saidi H, Gody JC, Aubry S, Gresenguet G, Kazatchkine MD, Sekaly RP, Belec L, Hocini H: Inhibition of HIV-1 transmission in trans from dendritic cells to CD4+ T lymphocytes by natural antibodies to the CRD domain of DC-SIGN purified from breast milk and intravenous immunoglobulins. Immunology. 2008, 123: 508-518.

Barat C, Gilbert C, Imbeault M, Tremblay MJ: Extracellular ATP reduces HIV-1 transfer from immature dendritic cells to CD4+ T lymphocytes. Retrovirology. 2008, 5: 30-

Mueller NH, Gilden DH, Cohrs RJ, Mahalingam R, Nagel MA: Varicella zoster virus infection: clinical features, molecular pathogenesis of disease, and latency. Neurol Clin. 2008, 26: 675-697.

Reeves M, Sinclair J: Aspects of human cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2008, 325: 297-313.

Divito S, Cherpes TL, Hendricks RL: A triple entente: virus, neurons, and CD8+ T cells maintain HSV-1 latency. Immunol Res. 2006, 36: 119-126.

Bouzar AB, Willems L: How HTLV-1 may subvert miRNAs for persistence and transformation. Retrovirology. 2008, 5: 101-

Palmer S, Maldarelli F, Wiegand A, Bernstein B, Hanna GJ, Brun SC, Kempf DJ, Mellors JW, Coffin JM, King MS: Low-level viremia persists for at least 7 years in patients on suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008, 105: 3879-3884.

Varbanov M, Espert L, Biard-Piechaczyk M: Mechanisms of CD4 T-cell depletion triggered by HIV-1 viral proteins. AIDS Rev. 2006, 8: 221-236.

Nottet HS, van Dijk SJ, Fanoy EB, Goedegebuure IW, de Jong D, Vrisekoop N, Baarle DV, Boltz V, Palmer S, Borleffs JC, Boucher CA: HIV-1 Can Persist in Aged Memory CD4+ T Lymphocytes With Minimal Signs of Evolution After 8.3 Years of Effective Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009, 50: 345-353.

Siliciano JD, Kajdas J, Finzi D, Quinn TC, Chadwick K, Margolick JB, Kovacs C, Gange SJ, Siliciano RF: Long-term follow-up studies confirm the stability of the latent reservoir for HIV-1 in resting CD4+ T cells. Nat Med. 2003, 9: 727-728.

McElrath MJ, Steinman RM, Cohn ZA: Latent HIV-1 infection in enriched populations of blood monocytes and T cells from seropositive patients. J Clin Invest. 1991, 87: 27-30.

Mikovits JA, Lohrey NC, Schulof R, Courtless J, Ruscetti FW: Activation of infectious virus from latent human immunodeficiency virus infection of monocytes in vivo. J Clin Invest. 1992, 90: 1486-1491.

Sonza S, Mutimer HP, Oelrichs R, Jardine D, Harvey K, Dunne A, Purcell DF, Birch C, Crowe SM: Monocytes harbour replication-competent, non-latent HIV-1 in patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. Aids. 2001, 15: 17-22.

Lambotte O, Taoufik Y, de Goer MG, Wallon C, Goujard C, Delfraissy JF: Detection of infectious HIV in circulating monocytes from patients on prolonged highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000, 23: 114-119.

Zhu T, Muthui D, Holte S, Nickle D, Feng F, Brodie S, Hwangbo Y, Mullins JI, Corey L: Evidence for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication in vivo in CD14(+) monocytes and its potential role as a source of virus in patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Virol. 2002, 76: 707-716.

Ellery PJ, Tippett E, Chiu YL, Paukovics G, Cameron PU, Solomon A, Lewin SR, Gorry PR, Jaworowski A, Greene WC, et al: The CD16+ monocyte subset is more permissive to infection and preferentially harbors HIV-1 in vivo. J Immunol. 2007, 178: 6581-6589.

Dong C, Kwas C, Wu L: Transcriptional restriction of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 gene expression in undifferentiated primary monocytes. J Virol. 2009, 83: 3518-3527.

Bres V, Yoh SM, Jones KA: The multi-tasking P-TEFb complex. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2008, 20: 334-340.

Rice AP, Herrmann CH: Regulation of TAK/P-TEFb in CD4+ T lymphocytes and macrophages. Curr HIV Res. 2003, 1: 395-404.

Liou LY, Herrmann CH, Rice AP: Transient induction of cyclin T1 during human macrophage differentiation regulates human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat transactivation function. J Virol. 2002, 76: 10579-10587.

Garber ME, Mayall TP, Suess EM, Meisenhelder J, Thompson NE, Jones KA: CDK9 autophosphorylation regulates high-affinity binding of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 tat-P-TEFb complex to TAR RNA. Mol Cell Biol. 2000, 20: 6958-6969.

Nobile C, Petit C, Moris A, Skrabal K, Abastado JP, Mammano F, Schwartz O: Covert human immunodeficiency virus replication in dendritic cells and in DC-SIGN-expressing cells promotes long-term transmission to lymphocytes. J Virol. 2005, 79: 5386-5399.

Burleigh L, Lozach PY, Schiffer C, Staropoli I, Pezo V, Porrot F, Canque B, Virelizier JL, Arenzana-Seisdedos F, Amara A: Infection of dendritic cells (DCs), not DC-SIGN-mediated internalization of human immunodeficiency virus, is required for long-term transfer of virus to T cells. J Virol. 2006, 80: 2949-2957.

Lore K, Smed-Sorensen A, Vasudevan J, Mascola JR, Koup RA: Myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells transfer HIV-1 preferentially to antigen-specific CD4+ T cells. J Exp Med. 2005, 201: 2023-2033.

Pelchen-Matthews A, Kramer B, Marsh M: Infectious HIV-1 assembles in late endosomes in primary macrophages. J Cell Biol. 2003, 162: 443-455.

Deneka M, Pelchen-Matthews A, Byland R, Ruiz-Mateos E, Marsh M: In macrophages, HIV-1 assembles into an intracellular plasma membrane domain containing the tetraspanins CD81, CD9, and CD53. J Cell Biol. 2007, 177: 329-341.

Welsch S, Keppler OT, Habermann A, Allespach I, Krijnse-Locker J, Krausslich HG: HIV-1 buds predominantly at the plasma membrane of primary human macrophages. PLoS Pathog. 2007, 3: e36-

Carter CA, Ehrlich LS: Cell biology of HIV-1 infection of macrophages. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2008, 62: 425-443.

Burton GF, Keele BF, Estes JD, Thacker TC, Gartner S: Follicular dendritic cell contributions to HIV pathogenesis. Semin Immunol. 2002, 14: 275-284.

Haase AT, Henry K, Zupancic M, Sedgewick G, Faust RA, Melroe H, Cavert W, Gebhard K, Staskus K, Zhang ZQ, et al: Quantitative image analysis of HIV-1 infection in lymphoid tissue. Science. 1996, 274: 985-989.

Heath SL, Tew JG, Tew JG, Szakal AK, Burton GF: Follicular dendritic cells and human immunodeficiency virus infectivity. Nature. 1995, 377: 740-744.

Spiegel H, Herbst H, Niedobitek G, Foss HD, Stein H: Follicular dendritic cells are a major reservoir for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in lymphoid tissues facilitating infection of CD4+ T-helper cells. Am J Pathol. 1992, 140: 15-22.

Smith BA, Gartner S, Liu Y, Perelson AS, Stilianakis NI, Keele BF, Kerkering TM, Ferreira-Gonzalez A, Szakal AK, Tew JG, Burton GF: Persistence of infectious HIV on follicular dendritic cells. J Immunol. 2001, 166: 690-696.

Keele BF, Tazi L, Gartner S, Liu Y, Burgon TB, Estes JD, Thacker TC, Crandall KA, McArthur JC, Burton GF: Characterization of the follicular dendritic cell reservoir of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol. 2008, 82: 5548-5561.

Otero M, Nunnari G, Leto D, Sullivan J, Wang FX, Frank I, Xu Y, Patel C, Dornadula G, Kulkosky J, Pomerantz RJ: Peripheral blood Dendritic cells are not a major reservoir for HIV type 1 in infected individuals on virally suppressive HAART. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2003, 19: 1097-1103.

Boy SC, van Heerden MB, Wolfaardt M, Cockeran R, Gema E, van Heerden WF: An investigation of the role of oral epithelial cells and Langerhans cells as possible HIV viral reservoirs. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009, 38: 114-119.

Isgro A, Leti W, De Santis W, Marziali M, Esposito A, Fimiani C, Luzi G, Pinti M, Cossarizza A, Aiuti F, Mezzaroma I: Altered clonogenic capability and stromal cell function characterize bone marrow of HIV-infected subjects with low CD4+ T cell counts despite viral suppression during HAART. Clin Infect Dis. 2008, 46: 1902-1910.

Baenziger S, Ziegler P, Mazzucchelli L, Bronz L, Speck RF, Manz MG: Human T cell development and HIV infection in human hemato-lymphoid system mice. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2008, 324: 125-131.

Dorival C, Brizzi F, Lelievre JD, Sol-Foulon N, Six E, Henry A, Andre-Schmutz I, Cavazzana-Calvo M, Coulombel L, Estaquier J, et al: HIV-1 Nef protein expression in human CD34+ progenitors impairs the differentiation of an early T/NK cell precursor. Virology. 2008, 377: 207-215.

Alexaki A, Liu Y, Wigdahl B: Cellular reservoirs of HIV-1 and their role in viral persistence. Curr HIV Res. 2008, 6: 388-400.

Alexaki A, Wigdahl B: HIV-1 infection of bone marrow hematopoietic progenitor cells and their role in trafficking and viral dissemination. PLoS Pathog. 2008, 4: e1000215-

Trobridge GD, Beard BC, Gooch C, Wohlfahrt M, Olsen P, Fletcher J, Malik P, Kiem HP: Efficient transduction of pigtailed macaque hematopoietic repopulating cells with HIV-based lentiviral vectors. Blood. 2008, 111: 5537-5543.

Mitsuyasu RT, Merigan TC, Carr A, Zack JA, Winters MA, Workman C, Bloch M, Lalezari J, Becker S, Thornton L, et al: Phase 2 gene therapy trial of an anti-HIV ribozyme in autologous CD34+ cells. Nat Med. 2009, 15: 285-292.

Pearson R, Kim YK, Hokello J, Lassen K, Friedman J, Tyagi M, Karn J: Epigenetic silencing of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transcription by formation of restrictive chromatin structures at the viral long terminal repeat drives the progressive entry of HIV into latency. J Virol. 2008, 82: 12291-12303.

Vanti M, Gallastegui E, Respaldiza I, Rodriguez-Gil A, Gomez-Herreros F, Jimeno-Gonzalez S, Jordan A, Chavez S: Yeast genetic analysis reveals the involvement of chromatin reassembly factors in repressing HIV-1 basal transcription. PLoS Genet. 2009, 5: e1000339-

Burnett JC, Miller-Jensen K, Shah PS, Arkin AP, Schaffer DV: Control of stochastic gene expression by host factors at the HIV promoter. PLoS Pathog. 2009, 5: e1000260-

Jochmann R, Thurau M, Jung S, Hofmann C, Naschberger E, Kremmer E, Harrer T, Miller M, Schaft N, Sturzl M: O-linked N-Acetylglucosaminylation of Sp1 Inhibits the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type-1 Promoter. J Virol. 2009, 83: 3704-3718.

Bosque A, Planelles V: Induction of HIV-1 latency and reactivation in primary memory CD4+ T cells. Blood. 2009, 113: 58-65.

Huang J, Wang F, Argyris E, Chen K, Liang Z, Tian H, Huang W, Squires K, Verlinghieri G, Zhang H: Cellular microRNAs contribute to HIV-1 latency in resting primary CD4+ T lymphocytes. Nat Med. 2007, 13: 1241-1247.

Zhang H: Reversal of HIV-1 latency with anti-microRNA inhibitors. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2009, 41: 451-454.

Lassen KG, Ramyar KX, Bailey JR, Zhou Y, Siliciano RF: Nuclear retention of multiply spliced HIV-1 RNA in resting CD4+ T cells. PLoS Pathog. 2006, 2: e68-

Jeeninga RE, Westerhout EM, van Gerven ML, Berkhout B: HIV-1 latency in actively dividing human T cell lines. Retrovirology. 2008, 5: 37-

Nazari R, Joshi S: CCR5 as target for HIV-1 gene therapy. Curr Gene Ther. 2008, 8: 264-272.

Lieberman-Blum SS, Fung HB, Bandres JC: Maraviroc: a CCR5-receptor antagonist for the treatment of HIV-1 infection. Clin Ther. 2008, 30: 1228-1250.

Rinaldo CR: Dendritic cell-based human immunodeficiency virus vaccine. J Intern Med. 2009, 265: 138-158.

Stybayeva G, Zhu H, Ramanculov E, Dandekar S, George M, Revzin A: Micropatterned co-cultures of T-lymphocytes and epithelial cells as a model of mucosal immune system. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2009, 380: 575-580.

Van Herrewege Y, Michiels J, Waeytens A, De Boeck G, Salden E, Heyndrickx L, Mooter van den G, de Bethune MP, Andries K, Lewi P, et al: A dual chamber model of female cervical mucosa for the study of HIV transmission and for the evaluation of candidate HIV microbicides. Antiviral Res. 2007, 74: 111-124.

Han Y, Wind-Rotolo M, Yang HC, Siliciano JD, Siliciano RF: Experimental approaches to the study of HIV-1 latency. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2007, 5: 95-106.

Denton PW, Garcia JV: Novel humanized murine models for HIV research. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2009, 6: 13-19.

Kumar P, Ban HS, Kim SS, Wu H, Pearson T, Greiner DL, Laouar A, Yao J, Haridas V, Habiro K, et al: T cell-specific siRNA delivery suppresses HIV-1 infection in humanized mice. Cell. 2008, 134: 577-586.