Energy, Sustainability and Society

Due to a rapid urbanization process in the Metropolitan Region of Santiago de Chile (MRS), the amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated has increased considerably within the last years. MSW should be managed properly in order to achieve sustainable development. The purpose of this study is to analyze MSW management in MRS on the basis of three different explorative scenarios for the year 2030. The Integrative Sustainability Concept of the Helmholtz Association provided a conceptual framework for the study and was used to evaluate the scenarios. One important topic within the field of management of MSW in the year 2030 will be the contribution of waste treatment technologies to energy production, e.g., by the use of landfill gas and by separated collection of biowaste followed by anaerobic treatment. The largest sustainability deficits in the scenarios are the small proportion of MSW being pre-treated before final disposal and the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with MSW disposal. MSW management technologies taken into consideration were mechanical biological treatment, energy recovery from MSW in anaerobic digestion plants with biogas production, the production of refuse-derived fuel and its use as a secondary fuel, as well as electricity generation from landfill gas. Energy generation from MSW in 2030 will be about 6% of electricity consumption in 2010. The three scenarios show some sustainability deficits. Even so, there are some improvements such as the reduction of GHG emissions and - even though marginal - energy supply for MRS from renewable energy sources.

Beyond the motivation to reduce the environmental impact of energy production, the economic rationale is a key incentive for local communities to become involved in renewable energy (RE). Substituting imported fossil fuels or final energy with RE sources creates opportunities at the local level to establish steps of the RE value chain, resulting in value added and employment in the respective region's RE sector. The model approach is described and applied to the example of onshore wind energy. Subsequently, the implementation of the model for an average model municipality is explained, which then serves as the basis for calculating the model results. The model was designed for the specific conditions in Germany but the approach can be transferred to other countries. A total of 9.3 million euros of municipal value added and 166 jobs could have been generated in the RE sector in the average model municipality in Germany in 2011. The value chain stage of systems manufacture contributed the largest share, but in total, the continuous effects, i.e., the effects generated by operation and maintenance (O&M) and in the system operator stage, were greater. The model introduced in this paper allows for a detailed analysis of the extent and distribution of RE value-added and employment effects at the local level. The results show that the use of RE has significant potential to create value added and employment throughout Germany's RE sector, even in regions without manufacturing industries. Knowledge of these effects can be an important input to local decision-making processes, increase acceptance, and enhance motivation to further expand decentralized RE generation.

The Republic of Serbia (RS) is strategically oriented towards sustainable development, but the implementation thereof faces different limitations and problems. RS emits substantial pollution caused by fossil fuels, and pollution from agricultural sector characterized by inefficient use of energy and intensive use of fertilizers. Bearing in mind the significant agricultural capacities and the orientation towards rural development, a special green transformation must be implemented in this domain. Taking into account the specificities and tradition, the introduction of the circularity concept can be considered the most acceptable. Research on readiness for transition to circularity in RS rural areas has not been conducted; therefore, the goal of the paper is to develop a concept for assessing the capacity of rural areas for circularity. This study is the first scientific proposal that aims to provide input for policymakers, thus contributing to the creation of a new identity of RS, whose development is based on the principles of sustainability. The study was conducted as conceptual research, with the objective of examining an undiscovered phenomenon without empirical evidence and incorporating the targeted phenomenon into a conceptual framework, while providing a proposal for a solution model based on an interdisciplinary approach—the application of qualitative and quantitative methods (aggregation of composite indicators and Delphi method). Paper results can be summarized as follows: (a) qualitative analysis of policy framework related to RS transition towards circularity (which shows that regulation is insufficient or non-existent, so conceptual research at this stage is necessary and only possible); (b) research questionnaire; (c) original set of indicators for measuring capacity for circularity (derived from the questionnaire); (d) concept of index of capacity of agriculture and rural areas for circularity (based on a set of indicators); and (e) concept of the monitoring of circularity implementation. The main research findings presented in this paper could be beneficial for countries at early stages of introducing circularity, having both low and high agricultural potential. With slight modifications, they can also be applied to other economic activities.

Dense settlement structures in cities have high demands of energy. Usually, these demands exceed the local resource availability. Individually developed supply options to cover these demands differ from place to place and can also vary within the boundaries of a city. In a common sense of European governance, cities are pushed to save energy, increase renewables and reduce import dependency on fossil fuels. There are many innovative concepts and technologies available to tackle these needs. The paper provides a comprehensive methodology for planning and assessing the development of ‘smart’ energy systems leading to complex energy provision technology networks using different on-site as well as off-site resources. The use of the P-graph (process-graph) method allows the optimisation of energy systems by using different energy sources for heating, storing and cooling. This paper discusses this method in the development of an urban brown field, the premises of the Reininghaus District, a former brewery in the city of Graz in Austria. The case study is interesting as it combines on-site energy sources (e.g. solar heat and photovoltaic) with nearby industrial waste heat and cooling at different temperatures and grid-based resources such as existing district heating, natural gas, and electricity. The case study also includes the competition between centralised technologies (e.g. large scale combined heat and power and heat pumps with district heating grids) and decentralised technologies (e.g. small scale combined heat and power, single building gas boilers, solar collectors, etc. in buildings). Ecological assessment with the Energetic Long-Term Analysis of Settlement Structures (ELAS) calculator provides an evaluation of the ecological impact of the developed energy systems. Different scenarios based on two building standards OIB (low energy house standard) and NZE (passive house standard) as well as different prices for key energy resources were developed for an urban development concept for the Reininghaus District. The results of these scenarios show a very wide spectrum of structures of the energy system with strong variations often caused by small changes in cost or prices. The optimisation shows that small changes in the setup of the price/cost structure can cause dramatic differences in the optimal energy system to supply a smart city district. However, decentralised systems with low-temperature waste heat and decentralised heat pumps in the building groups show the financially most feasible and, compared to alternatives, most ecological way to supply the new buildings. The planning process for the development of the Reininghaus District is a complex and therefore lengthy process and shall be concretised over the next decades. Optimal energy technology networks and scenarios resulting from the application of the described methods support the framework energy plan. The accumulated knowledge can be used to form smart energy supply solutions as an integral part for the discussion of the stakeholders (investors, city department) to guide the forming of their action plan through the development of the city quarter.

The institution of energy consulting services is one of the several government instruments for improving the efficiency of energy usage in many European countries. Various forms of advice on energy issues are offered to households. In Sweden, there has been a drop in the number of households who avail of this service, even though it is offered independently, free of charge and easily accessible. Instead, Swedes have been increasingly seeking information on the Internet (websites, blogs and social media), which can be seen as both a challenge and an opportunity for the energy consulting service offered by Swedish municipalities. The aim of the literature study is to present an overview of current research in the area of energy consulting targeting households. This to identify central themes in the research front, identify knowledge gaps and discuss which challenges previous research emphasise for energy consulting services targeting households. The results show that research indicates that a measurement–feedback–communication strategy for households is necessary if one wishes to effect a change in consumer behaviour. Today, consumers expect more individualised information than before. Here, the three dimensions of sustainable development can be useful. Energy consulting is also better appreciated if it occurs in situ—at the customer’s home. How it can and should be developed in an increasingly digitalised world is a topic we think is vital for future research. Also, with sustainable development becoming increasingly important in this century, an interdisciplinary approach to energy consulting is strongly recommended by the authors of this paper.

The transition to a sustainable future challenges the current energy grids with the integration of variable, distributed renewable energy sources. On a technical level, multi-energy systems may provide the necessary flexibility to minimise the gap between demand and supply. Suitable methods and tools are necessary to derive relevant results and to support a transition to renewable energy sources. While several, dedicated tools to model grids and infrastructure of single-energy carriers exist, there are no tools capable of modelling multi-energy systems in detail. Thus, this paper presents the necessary aspects to consider when modelling grid-based multi-energy systems, presents three open source frameworks for modelling grid-based energy systems and points out the major challenges. The current main aspects and challenges for modelling grid-based energy systems are derived from a literature review. Three open source multi-energy modelling frameworks (Calliope, oemof, urbs) are presented, and the extent to which they consider these aspects and how they tackle challenges is analysed. We identified five general energy system modelling aspects (modelling scope, model formulation, spatial coverage, time horizon, data) and three aspects specific to modelling energy grids (level of detail, spatial resolution, temporal resolution). While the specific aspects mainly influence the representation of the technical parts of the energy system and the computational effort, the general aspects primarily relate to the system boundaries and scope of the model. For the evaluation of the modelling results, we identified several assessment criteria, including economic, energetic, exergetic and reliability. Each of the studied open source modelling frameworks provides generic capabilities to model energy converters, and the electricity, gas and district heat networks. However, the general and specific aspects present respective challenges. Relating to the general aspects, complexity of model formulation increases when including additional boundary conditions. The accuracy of the results is also dependent on data quality. Temporal and spatial resolutions are the major specific challenges for modelling the energy infrastructure. There is still a broad field of opportunities for researchers to contribute to grid-based energy system modelling. This encompasses especially the consideration of short- and long-term dynamics of renewable energy sources in planning models.

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using micro-renewable energy sources. However, planning has not yet developed methodological approaches (1) for spatially optimizing residential development according to the different renewable energy potentials and (2) for integrating objectives of optimized energy efficiency with other environmental requirements and concerns. This study addresses these topics by firstly presenting a new concept for the regional planning. The methodological approach for the evaluation of spatial variations in the available energy potential was based on the combination of existing methods adapted to the local scale and data availability. For assessing the bioenergy potential, a new method was developed. Other environmental criteria for deciding about sustainable locations were identified through a survey of more than 100 expert respondents. This survey involved pairwise comparisons of relevant factors, which were then translated into relative weights using the Analytical Hierarchy Process. Subsequently, these weights were applied to factor maps in a Geographical Information System using a weighted linear combination method. In the test region, the eastern metropolitan area of Cagliari, Sardinia, this analysis resulted in the designation of suitable areas for new settlements and preferred locations for micro-renewable technologies. Based on expert preferences, a number of alternatives for future housing development were identified, which can be integrated in the early stages of land use or development plans. The method proposed can be an effective tool for planners to assess changes and to identify the best solution in terms of sustainable development.

Facing planetary boundaries, we need a sustainable energy system providing its life support function for society in the long-term within environmental limits. Since science plays an important role in decision-making, this study examines the thematic landscape of research on sustainable energy, which may contribute to a sustainability transformation. Understanding the structure of the research field allows for critical reflections and the identification of blind spots for advancing this field. The study applies a text mining approach on 26533 Scopus-indexed abstracts published from 1990 to 2016 based on a latent Dirichlet allocation topic model. Models with up 1100 topics were created. Based on coherence scores and manual inspection, the model with 300 topics was selected. These statistical methods served for highlighting timely topic trends, differing thematic fields, and emerging communities in the topic network. The study critically reflects the quantitative results from a sustainability perspective. The study identifies a focus on establishing and optimizing the energy infrastructure towards 100% renewable energies through key modern technology areas: materials science, (biological) process engineering, and (digital) monitoring and control systems. Energy storage, photonic materials, nanomaterials, or biofuels belong to the topics with the strongest trends. The study identifies decreasing trends for general aspects regarding sustainable development and related economic, environmental, and political issues. The discourse is latently adopting a technology-oriented paradigm focusing on renewable energy generation and is moving away from the multi-faceted concept of sustainability. The field has the potential to contribute to climate change mitigation by optimizing renewable energy systems. However, given the complexity of these systems, horizontal integration of the various valuable vertical research strands is required. Furthermore, the holistic ecological perspective considering the global scale that has originally motivated research on sustainable energy might be re-strengthened, e.g., by an integrated energy and materials perspective. Beyond considering the physical dimensions of energy systems, existing links from the currently technology-oriented discourse to the social sciences might be strengthened. For establishing sustainable energy systems, future research will not only have to target the technical energy infrastructure but put a stronger focus on issues perceivable from a holistic second-order perspective.

Energy consumption is inextricably linked with the economy and the environment. The interlinkages are particularly important in low-income countries such as Ethiopia where biomass fuels account for more than 85% of the total energy consumed. This paper aims to assess the energy and economic values, and environmental emissions of solid biomass fuels in Ethiopia. The study considered four common solid biomass fuels (firewood, charcoal, crop residues, and cattle dung) in Ethiopia. The amount of biomass fuels during the Ethiopian fiscal year 2015/2016 was compiled from various data sources. Prices, net calorific values, and emission factors per mass of fuels were then used to calculate the economic, energy, and emission values of the solid biomass fuels. The study showed that, in 2015/2016, the consumption of the four solid biomass fuels contributed between 33,327 and 44,547 ktoe to the total energy consumption with an estimated economic value of 4.4–7.7% of the GDP at current market prices. The stationary combustion of the biomass fuels could result in 165–219 Mt of CO2eq emissions, whereas the fuelwood consumption could potentially impinge on the size or quality of 730 thousand ha of forest, woodlands, and shrublands. The results suggest that the country should scale-up its policy measures aimed at increasing households’ access to modern energy sources and energy-efficient cooking stoves while at the same time strengthening its afforestation and reforestation activities.

Decarbonisation of the European economy is one of the main strategic goals of energy transition in the European Union (EU), which aims to become a leader in this process by 2050 and to include other European countries making thus the European continent the first carbon neutral region in the world. Although decarbonisation is an important goal of the EU, the models for monitoring the progress of this process have not yet been clearly defined, and views on the social, economic, and security implications in terms of prioritising decarbonisation are conflicting. The main objective of this paper is to determine the methodological correctness of the existing method of decarbonisation monitoring, to develop a new monitoring model indicating the differences in the EU and European countries that are non-EU and to point out the underlying social, economic and security implications that must certainly find their place in the decision-making process in this field. The main results showed that there is no clearly defined model for monitoring the success of decarbonisation, while the indicators that are commonly used for this purpose make a model that, as the analysis shows—is methodologically incorrect. In the case of EU countries, the following indicators proved to be the most reliable: consumption-based CO2 and share in global CO2. For non-EU countries, the best monitoring indicators are CO2 per unit of GDP, consumption-based CO2, and renewable energy consumption. These indicators can explain 99% of the variance in decarbonisation success. The basic conclusion of the paper is that even before the implementation, the decarbonisation monitoring model should be defined and methodologically tested, and the use of a single model for all EU countries or for all countries is not recommended. It is proposed to simplify the monitoring model, with an emphasis on monitoring of consumption-based CO2, which proved to be the most efficient in all sampled countries. The current method of monitoring is based exclusively on environmentally related indicators while ignoring the fact that decarbonisation is associated with almost all aspects of development. The additional social, economic and security aspects need to be developed and included in the further monitoring process.