Springer Science and Business Media LLC

The Yangtze Estuary acts as gateways where microplastics transport from freshwater into marine environments, with one of the largest discharge volumes in the world. The occurrence of microplastics in surface water and sediments of the Yangtze Estuary has been reported. However, little is known about microplastics in and around Chongming Island in the estuary. In this study, the distribution of microplastics in surface water and sediments of Chongming Island was investigated and compared in different environmental medium.

Abundances of microplastics in surface water and sediments were in the ranges of 0–259 items m^− 3 and 10–60 items kg^− 1 dry weight, respectively. Microplastics were more abundant in the surface water of the Yangtze River shores than in the inland rivers (p < 0.01). Proportions in fiber form in surface water and sediment were 33% and 67%; and those in fragment form were 39% and 24%. Most particles (> 72%) were < 1 mm in the longest dimension; 65% were white and 30% were transparent. Of the 11 compositions identified, polyethylene, polypropylene, and α-cellulose predominated in both phases.

This is the first study to focus on microplastics in inland watercourses on Chongming Island and along the Yangtze River’s shores in both phases. There were differences between the island and estuary in composition and density due to the distinct vertical mixing processes. The in situ filtration of surface water (100 L) sampling method was well employed in various freshwater environments and free of plastic materials in front of the filter, analysis results of which provided an important baseline reference for evaluating microplastic pollution in the Yangtze Estuary.

Currently, plastic is at the top of the international agenda for waste management. Recent meetings of the Conferences of the Parties to the Basel and the Stockholm Conventions have expressed concerns over the impact of plastic waste, marine plastic litter, and microplastics, and emphasised the importance of reducing consumption and ensuring the environmentally sound management of waste plastics. This study presents the first continental historical analysis of mass importation and consumption of different polymers and plastics (primary and secondary forms, respectively) in Africa and the associated pollution potential. We identified, collated and synthesised dispersed international trade data on the importation of polymers and plastics into several African countries.

The 33 African countries (total population of 856,671,366) with available data for more than 10 years imported approximately 86.14 Mt of polymers in primary form and 31.5 Mt of plastic products between 1990 and 2017. Extrapolating to the continental level (African population of 1.216 billion in 54 countries), about 172 Mt of polymers and plastics valued at $285 billion were imported between 1990 and 2017. Considering also the components of products, an estimated 230 Mt of plastics entered Africa during that time period, with the largest share going to Egypt (43 Mt, 18.7%), Nigeria (39 Mt, 17.0%), South Africa (27 Mt, 11.7%), Algeria (26 Mt, 11.3%), Morocco (22 Mt, 9.6%), and Tunisia (16 Mt, 7.0%). Additionally, primary plastic production in 8 African countries contributed 15 Mt during 2009–2015. The assessment showed that environmentally sound end-of-life management of waste plastics by recycling and energy recovery is in its infancy in Africa, but recycling activities and thermal recovery have started in a few countries.

Globally, the perception is that production and consumption of plastics can only increase in the future. Solutions are needed to tackle this global challenge. Certain policies and plastic bag bans could help reduce plastic consumption in the near future, as demonstrated by Rwanda. Furthermore, there is a need for innovative solutions such as the introduction of biodegradable polymers and other alternatives, especially for packaging.

Under the EU chemicals regulation REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals EC 1907/2006), registrants are not obliged to provide information related to intrinsic substance properties for substances that pose a threat to the drinking water resources. In 2019, perfluorobutane sulfonic acid (PFBS) and 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-2-(heptafluoropropoxy)-propanoic acid (HFPO-DA trade name GenX) were demonstrated to have an equivalent level of concern (ELoC) to persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic or very persistent and very bioaccumulative (PBT/vPvB) substances owing to their persistent, mobile and toxic (PMT) substance properties and very persistent and very mobile (vPvM) substance properties, respectively. They were both subsequently identified as substances of very high concern (SVHC) applying Article 57(f) in REACH. This work follows up on this regulatory decision by presenting a science based, conceptual level comparison that all PMT/vPvM substances pose an ELoC to PBT/vPvB substances. Using the two cases named above, as well as 1,4-dioxane, 16 categories were developed to evaluate a) serious effects on human health, b) serious effects on the environment and c) additional effects. 1,4-dioxane has recently been proposed to be classified as Carcinogenic 1B by the Committee for Risk Assessment (RAC). The aim was to enable an objective and scientifically justified conclusion that these classes of substances have an equivalent level of concern for the environment and human health.

In all of the categories related to human health, the environment and other effects, the PMT/vPvM case study substances exhibited comparable effects to PBT/vPvB substances. A difference in the human and environmental exposure pathways of PMT/vPvM and PBT/vPvB substances exists as they vary temporally and spatially. However, effects and impacts are similar, with PMT/vPvM substances potentially accumulating in (semi-)closed drinking water cycles and pristine aquatic environments, and PBT/vPvB substances accumulating in humans and the food chain. Both PMT/vPvM and PBT/vPvB substances share the common difficulty that long term and long-range transport and risk of exposure is very difficult to determine in advance and with sufficient accuracy.

The registration process of substances under REACH should reflect that PMT/vPvM substances pose an equivalent level of concern to PBT/vPvB substances.