Review of Educational Research

Một chương trình tiểu học không phân lớp là chương trình trong đó trẻ em được nhóm một cách linh hoạt theo mức độ hiệu suất, không dựa trên độ tuổi, và tiến bộ qua trường tiểu học theo tốc độ của riêng mình. Phổ biến vào những năm 1950, 1960, và đầu những năm 1970, kế hoạch không phân lớp đang quay trở lại ngày nay. Bài báo này xem xét lại nghiên cứu về những ảnh hưởng đối với thành tựu của tổ chức không phân lớp. Kết quả chỉ ra ảnh hưởng tích cực một cách nhất quán đối với thành tựu từ các dạng đơn giản của không phân lớp được phát triển sớm, chẳng hạn như nhóm chéo lớp cho một môn học (ES trung bình = + .46) và nhóm chéo lớp cho nhiều môn học (ES trung bình = + .34). Các dạng không phân lớp sử dụng cá nhân hóa rộng rãi ít thành công hơn (ES trung bình = + .02). Các nghiên cứu về Giáo Dục Hướng Dẫn Cá Nhân (IGE), sử dụng không phân lớp và cá nhân hóa, cũng có kết quả không nhất quán (ES trung bình = + .11). Bài báo kết luận rằng tổ chức không phân lớp có thể có tác động tích cực đến thành tích của học sinh nếu sử dụng nhóm chéo độ tuổi để cho phép giáo viên cung cấp hướng dẫn trực tiếp hơn cho học sinh, nhưng không phải nếu nó được sử dụng như một khuôn khổ cho việc giảng dạy cá nhân hóa.

In this article we review research on literacy in out-of-school settings. Our first purpose is to identify the conceptual advances in theories of literacy that have arisen from non-school-based research and to trace their evolution. We are especially interested in clarifying the historical roots of current theories. A second purpose is to highlight recent research on literacy in out-of-school settings that exemplifies the range and dimensions of current work. Finally, we call for an examination of the relationships between school and nonschool contexts as a new direction for theory and research. We ask, How can research on literacy and out-of-school learning help us to think anew about literacy teaching and learning across a range of contexts, including school?

Although connectionist models provide a framework explaining how the decoding and encoding abilities work reciprocally to enhance reading and spelling ability, encoding instruction in today’s schools is not a priority. Although a limited amount of high-quality experimental or control studies to date ( N = 11) give empirical support to using direct, explicit encoding instruction to increase the reading and spelling abilities of those students at risk for literacy failure, the benefits of integrating this instruction into current reading curriculums warrant further consideration. Students receiving encoding instruction and guided practice that included using (a) manipulatives (e.g., letter tiles, plastic letters) to learn phoneme–grapheme relationships and words and (b) writing phoneme–grapheme relationships and words made from these correspondences significantly outperformed contrast groups not receiving encoding instruction. Robust Cohen’s d effect sizes, favoring the treatment groups, were found in areas of phonemic awareness, spelling, decoding, fluency, comprehension, and writing. Educational implications of these findings suggest that there is support for using encoding instruction to increase the literacy performances of at-risk primary grade students and that encoding instruction can be successful in improving the reading and spelling performances of older students with learning disabilities. Importantly, there is also evidence to support the transfer effects of early encoding instruction on later reading, writing, and spelling performances.

The central thesis of this paper is that a cognitively and academically beneficial form of bilingualism can be achieved only on the basis of adequately developed first language (L1) skills. Two hypotheses are formulated and combined to arrive at this position. The “developmental interdependence” hypothesis proposes that the development of competence in a second language (L2) is partially a function of the type of competence already developed in L1 at the time when intensive exposure to L2 begins. The “threshold” hypothesis proposes that there may be threshold levels of linguistic competence which a bilingual child must attain both in order to avoid cognitive disadvantages and allow the potentially beneficial aspects of bilingualism to influence his cognitive and academic functioning. These hypotheses are integrated into a model of bilingual education in which educational outcomes are explained as a function of the interaction between background, child input and educational treatment factors. It is suggested that many evaluations of bilingual education programs have produced uninterpretable data because they have failed to incorporate the possibility of these interactions into their research designs.

This study integrates 40 years of teacher self-efficacy (TSE) research to explore the consequences of TSE for the quality of classroom processes, students’ academic adjustment, and teachers’ psychological well-being. Via a criteria-based review approach, 165 eligible articles were included for analysis. Results suggest that TSE shows positive links with students’ academic adjustment, patterns of teacher behavior and practices related to classroom quality, and factors underlying teachers’ psychological well-being, including personal accomplishment, job satisfaction, and commitment. Negative associations were found between TSE and burnout factors. Last, a small number of studies indicated indirect effects between TSE and academic adjustment, through instructional support, and between TSE and psychological well-being, through classroom organization. Possible explanations for the findings and gaps in the measurement and analysis of TSE in the educational literature are discussed.

This article presents a review on gender differences and information and communication technology (ICT) in primary and secondary education. First the rapid development of the use of ICT in education is outlined. Then the topics of access to computers, computer-related learning processes, and educational outcomes are discussed. The review also provides insight into the background of gender differences in participation in computer activities and performance in relation to ICT. The research reviewed focused on the role of teachers and fellow classmates, on the different approaches of girls and boys to ICT, and on the preferences of girls regarding the structure and design of software. The research also analyzed the complex meaning of computer attitudes as both a cause and a consequence of differences in the participation and performance of girls and boys. The extent and nature of these differences vary from application to application.

In this review, the research conducted during the 1980s on race/ethnicity, gender, and social class differences in K–12 educational uses of computers is summarized in terms of access, processes, and outcomes. First, gender, social class, and racial inequalities in access to computers are documented. Second, equity in four aspects of process is considered: type of use, teachers’ attitudes towards equity and equality, curriculum content, and interactions among students. Third, the literature on three outcome variables is considered: student attitudes, computer-related competence (literacy and programming), and traditional achievement measures using computer-aided instruction. Finally, implications from the decade of research are drawn. These include the conclusions that the use of computers maintained and exaggerated inequities, that equity issues are complex and future research should reflect this, that between-school differences in equality should be examined, and that much more research on poor and minority children is a priority.

Social role-taking is examined psychometrically through a review of the constructs, measures developed to represent the constructs, and the reliability and validity of the measures. The construct is described in several different ways in the literature. Most measures show adequate interrater reliabilities, but there is less evidence regarding temporal stability or internal consistency of the scales. The validation efforts have primarily been on the age-stage relationship rather than on other aspects of the construct, although a more expanded focus has begun within the last few years. The review shows that Chandler’s cognitive, Selman’s sociomoral, and Flavell’s nickel-dime tasks possess the best psychometric properties. Recommendations for improving measurement in the social role-taking area are discussed.

This meta-analysis investigated the influence of assessment on the reported effects of problem-based learning (PBL) by applying Sugrue’s (1995) model of cognitive components of problem solving. Three levels of the knowledge structure that can be targeted by assessment of problem solving are used as the main independent variables: (a) understanding of concepts, (b) understanding of the principles that link concepts, and (c) linking of concepts and principles to conditions and procedures for application. PBL had the most positive effects when the focal constructs being assessed were at the level of understanding principles that link concepts. The results suggest that the implications of assessment must be considered in examining the effects of problem-based learning and probably in all comparative education research.

Multivariate statistical methods have been strongly recommended in educational and psychological research, which employs multiple dependent variables. While the techniques are readily available there is still controversy as to the proper use of the methods. This paper reviews the available methods for analyzing and interpreting data with multivariate analysis of variance and provides some guidelines for their use. In addition, causal models that underlie the various methods are presented to facilitate the use and understanding of the methods