Using Encoding Instruction to Improve the Reading and Spelling Performances of Elementary Students At Risk for Literacy Difficulties
Tóm tắt
Although connectionist models provide a framework explaining how the decoding and encoding abilities work reciprocally to enhance reading and spelling ability, encoding instruction in today’s schools is not a priority. Although a limited amount of high-quality experimental or control studies to date ( N = 11) give empirical support to using direct, explicit encoding instruction to increase the reading and spelling abilities of those students at risk for literacy failure, the benefits of integrating this instruction into current reading curriculums warrant further consideration. Students receiving encoding instruction and guided practice that included using (a) manipulatives (e.g., letter tiles, plastic letters) to learn phoneme–grapheme relationships and words and (b) writing phoneme–grapheme relationships and words made from these correspondences significantly outperformed contrast groups not receiving encoding instruction. Robust Cohen’s d effect sizes, favoring the treatment groups, were found in areas of phonemic awareness, spelling, decoding, fluency, comprehension, and writing. Educational implications of these findings suggest that there is support for using encoding instruction to increase the literacy performances of at-risk primary grade students and that encoding instruction can be successful in improving the reading and spelling performances of older students with learning disabilities. Importantly, there is also evidence to support the transfer effects of early encoding instruction on later reading, writing, and spelling performances.
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Adams M. J., 1990, Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print
Blachman B. A., 2000, Road to the Code: A phonological awareness program for young students
Bookbinder G. E., 2002, Salford Sentence Reading Test
Bryk A. S., 1992, Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods
Cooke N. L., 2008, Reading Improvement, 45, 26
Cunningham P., 1992, Reading Teacher, 46, 106
Deno S., 1985, Basic Academic Skills Samples (BASS)
Denton C. A., 2006, Responsive Reading Instruction: Flexible intervention for struggling readers in the early grades
Ehri L. C., 1997, Learning to spell, 237
Ehri L. C., 1998, Word recognition in beginning literacy, 3
Elkonin D. B., 1973, Comparative reading, 551
Gall J. P., 2005, Applying education research: A practical guide, 5
Glass G. V., 1981, Meta-analysis in social research
Grace K. E., 2007, Phonics and spelling through phoneme–grapheme mapping
Gray W. S., 1967, GORT: Gray Oral Reading Test
Greebaum C. R., 1987, Spellmaster Diagnostic Tests
Hatcher P. J., 1994, Student Development, 65, 41
Huck S. W., 2008, Reading statistics and research
Ihnot C., 2001, Read Naturally
Jastak S., 1984, Wide range achievement test—Revised
Joshi R. M., 2008, American Educator, 32, 6
Larsen S. C., 1994, Test of Written Spelling–3
Mathes P. G., 2005, Proactive Early Interventions in Reading
Moats L. C., 1998, American Educator, 22, 42
Moats L. C., 2005, American Educator, 29, 12
Moats L. C., 2009, LETRS Module 2—The speech sounds of English: Phonetics, phonology, and phoneme awareness, 2
Moats L. C., 2009, LETRS Module 3—Spellography for teachers: How English spelling works, 2
Moats L. C., 2010, Speech to print: Language essentials for teachers
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000, Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Pub. No. 00–4754)
Pinnell G. S., 1998, Word matters: Teaching phonics and spelling in the reading and writing classroom
Prescott G., 1978, Metropolitan achievement tests: Basic survey battery
Richardson E., 1985, Decoding Skills Test
Snow C. E., Burns M. S., Griffin P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young students. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Retrieved from http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6023
Stone C. A., 2005, Handbook of language and literacy: Development and disorders
Torgesen J. K., 1999, The test of word reading efficiency
Treiman R., 1998, Word recognition in beginning literacy, 289
Wagner R. K., 1999, Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Wechsler D., 1992, Wechsler Individual Achievement Test
Wiederholt J. L., 1992, Gray Oral Reading Tests, 3
Wiederholt J. L., 2002, Gray Oral Reading Tests, 4
Wilkinson G. S., 1993, Wide Range Achievement Test, 3
Woodcock R. W., 1987, Woodcock Reading Mastery Test–Revised
Woodcock R. W., 1990, Woodcock–Johnson Psychoeducational Battery–Revised