Geological Journal

The analyses of the main parameters controlling the present Chile‐type and Marianas‐type tectonic settings developed along the eastern Pacific region show four different tectonic regimes: (1) a nearly neutral regime in the Oregon subduction zone; (2) major extensional regimes as the Nicaragua subduction zone developed in continental crust; (3) a Marianas setting in the Sandwich subduction zone with ocean floored back‐arc basin with a unique west‐dipping subduction zone and (4) the classic and dominant Chile‐type under compression. The magmatic, structural and sedimentary behaviours of these four settings are discussed to understand the past tectonic regimes in the Mesozoic Andes based on their present geological and tectonic characteristics. The evaluation of the different parameters that governed the past and present tectonic regimes indicates that absolute motion of the upper plate relative to the hotspot frame and the consequent trench roll‐back velocity are the first order parameters that control the deformation. Locally, the influences of the trench fill, linked to the dominant climate in the forearc, and the age of the subducted oceanic crust, have secondary roles. Ridge collisions of seismic and seismic oceanic ridges as well as fracture zone collisions have also a local outcome, and may produce an increase in coupling that reinforces compressional deformation. Local strain variations in the past and present Andes are not related with changes in the relative convergence rate, which is less important than the absolute motion relative to the Pacific hotspot frame, or changes in the thermal state of the upper plate. Changes in the slab dip, mainly those linked to steepening subduction zones, produce significant variations in the thermal state, that are important to generate extreme deformation in the foreland. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Early Triassic carbon isotopes are measured based on 1422 carbonate bulk samples from 10 Lower Triassic sections in different palaeogeographic settings in South China. Early Triassic fluctuation ofδ¹³C is used as a proxy for environmental change to discuss the devastation and restoration of marine ecosystems following the biggest Phanerozoic mass extinction at the end of the Permian. Early Triassicδ¹³C profiles derived from various depositional settings in South China yield comparable excursion patterns. A dramatic negative shift ofδ¹³C across the Permian/Triassic boundary is followed by a moderate increase inδ¹³C values throughout the Induan. A positiveδ¹³C anomaly occurs near the Induan/Olenekian boundary, followed by a Smithian interval of lowerδ¹³C values. A distinct positive shift inδ¹³C coincides with the Smithian/Spathian boundary, and is followed by a high Spathian plateau ofδ¹³C values. Thus the distinctδ¹³C anomalies coincide well with key stratigraphic boundaries.

Early Triassic intervals of lowδ¹³C values correspond to a decline in benthic generic diversity in South China and intervals of highδ¹³C values are coupled with an increase in biodiversity. The Early Triassic fluctuations ofδ¹³C profiles are good proxies for perturbations of ecologic environments, indicating multiple phases of devastation–restoration of marine ecosystems punctuated by several unexpected extraneous events such as volcanic activity. The initial restoration of marine ecosystems may have occurred earlier in the Induan and the ecosystems were subsequently destroyed during the Smithian. Biotic and environmental recoveries occurred at the Spathian, while the ecosystems eventually returned to normal levels in the early Middle Triassic. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In the southern flank of the Menderes Massif, western Turkey, an E–W‐trending quartz–mica vein was recognized in the augen gneisses of the so‐called ‘core’ series. Rb‐Sr determinations of two undeformed or slightly deformed mica books from the vein yielded Palaeocene–Early Eocene ages (c. 62–43 Ma) for the vein formation. The new data are interpreted to closely post‐date the time of major Barrovian‐type High Temperature/Medium Pressure (HT/MP) main Menderes metamorphism (MMM) and coeval crustal‐scale top‐to‐the‐N‐NNE Tertiary deformation that affected the whole Massif. Subsequent cooling occurred in the Middle Eocene (36 ± 2 Ma Ar‐Ar mica ages).

Top‐to‐the‐N‐NNE structures were later overprinted by top‐to‐the‐S‐SSW fabrics within normal‐sense ductile shear zone, located between the core augen gneisses in the footwall and the structurally overlying cover schists in the hanging wall. The Massif was at the surface by the Early Miocene. Field relations clearly demonstrate that the age of top‐to‐the‐S‐SSW deformation is well constrained between the age of the MMM and the Early Miocene, and that exhumation was mainly tectonically controlled. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The high rate of species extinction in recent decades is seen by many ecologists as heralding an extinction of catastrophic magnitude in the near future. The ecological consequences of such a biodiversity crisis are hard to predict, but some indication of likely effects can be gained from the knowledge of mass extinctions in the past. The Late Ordovician extinction was one of the five great extinctions in the geological record. It occurred in two phases about 0.5–1million years (Ma) apart and resulted from climatic and related environmental changes associated with the rapid growth and decay of the large Gondwanan ice cap. Overall, an estimated 86% of species became extinct, 61% of genera and 12–24% of families, but few or no orders or higher taxa. The extinction severely affected both marine benthos and plankton. Using brachiopod data as a measure of ecological change, it can be seen that the number of within‐habitat species (alpha diversity) was severely reduced and the number and distinctness of benthic communities (beta diversity) on marine shelves also declined sharply. Concurrently the number of palaeogeographic provinces fell from ten to five, possibly as a result of a loss of endemic species and preferential survival of cosmopolitan species. At the peak of extinction, following the second extinction phase, the ecological structure of both benthic and planktonic ecosystems had been severely disrupted and downgraded in complexity as a wide variety of niches were ‘vacated’. In spite of the profound biodiversity and ecological crisis within this ‘survival’ interval, communities returned to their pre‐extinction levels of alpha and beta diversity during the subsequent ‘recovery’ interval. In spite of the large amount of vacant ecospace to be filled there was very little innovation in terms of adaptive strategy, so that the structure of the emerging Silurian communities was similar to that of the Ordovician. In these terms the ecological recovery was remarkable, but it was also prolonged over about 4–5 Ma. On a geological time scale the biosphere returned to ‘normal’, but on a human time scale the mass extinction produced a very severely degraded biosphere. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Analysis of published data shows that, for most animal groups, the fossil record in the immediate aftermath of the end‐Permian biotic crisis is less complete than during the Late Permian or Middle Triassic. Completeness is measured by the Simple Completeness Metric. The interval of poor quality fossil record spans the entire Lower Triassic and may have serious consequences for our perception of the magnitude of the end‐Permian event. A model is presented which seeks to explain this phenomenon. There is abundant evidence that levels of primary productivity were severely reduced in the very latest Permian. In response to this, animal biomass must also have been reduced. The biomass of a particular taxon is the product of the size of individual organisms multiplied by the number of individuals. Those taxa that reduced population size, but maintained original body size, would tend not to be preserved (apparent extinction) and would also be more prone to ‘real’ extinction. Those taxa that retained large population sizes, but reduced body size, would resist extinction and would also maintain their presence in the fossil record. One testable prediction is that taxa present in the fossil record in the immediate aftermath of the end‐Permian crisis will have smaller body size than their pre‐event relatives, regardless of their initial size. Anecdotal evidence supports this prediction. Such a biomass reduction model may also be applicable to other mass extinction events. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The East China Sea basins, located in the West Pacific Continental Margin (WPCM) since the late Mesozoic, mainly include the East China Sea Shelf Basin (ECSSB) and the Okinawa Trough (OT). The WPCM and its adjacent seas can be tectonically divided into five units from west to east, including the Min‐Zhe Uplift, ECSSB, the Taiwan–Sinzi Belt, OT, and the Ryukyu Island Arc, which record regional tectonic evolution and geodynamics. Among those tectonic units, the ECSSB and the OT are important composite sedimentary pull‐apart basins, which experienced two stages of strike‐slip pull‐apart processes. In seismic profiles, the ECSSB and the OT show a double‐layer architecture with an upper half‐graben overlapping on a lower graben. In planar view, the ECSSB and the OT are characterized by faulted blocks from south to north in the early Cenozoic and by a zonation from west to east in the late Cenozoic. The faulted blocks with planar zonation and two‐layer vertical architecture entirely jumped eastward from the Min‐Zhe Uplift to the OT during the late Cenozoic. In addition, the whole palaeogeomorphology of the ECSSB changed notably, from pre‐Cenozoic highland or mountain into a Late Eocene continental margin with east‐tilting topography caused by the eastward tectonic jumping. The OT opened to develop into a back‐arc basin until the Miocene. Synthetic surface geological studies in the China mainland reveal that the Mesozoic tectonic setting of the WPCM is an Andean‐type continental margin developing many sinistral strike‐slip faults and pull‐apart basins and the Cenozoic tectonic setting of the WPCM is a Japanese‐type continental margin developing dextral strike‐slip faults and pull‐apart basins. Thus, the WPCM underwent a transition from Andean‐type to Japanese‐type continental margins at about 80 Ma (Late Cretaceous) and a transition in topography from a Mesozoic highland to a Cenozoic lowland, and then to below sea‐level basins. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Evidence for 35 former cwm glaciers has been mapped in Snowdonia, N. Wales. Glacial limits are based on end moraines, boulder and drift limits, and the down‐valley extent of hummocky moraine. Protalus ramparts indicate that at least 16 semi‐permanent snow beds down to altitudes of 150 m also existed. Radiocarbon dates and pollen stratigraphy indicate that the glaciers and snow beds belong to the Loch Lomond (Younger Dryas) Stadial. The existence of a large number of ‘Older Series Moraines’ is questionned. Glacier reconstruction and contouring allows calculation of fan line altitudes, and trend surface analysis indicates that they rise from 450 m in the southwest to 700 m in the northeast. It is inferred that mean July temperature at sea‐level was around 8·5°C. Two differences between north and south Britain are recognized. Firstly in Snowdonia, as in the Lake District and Southern Uplands, the dominance of southerly air streams appears less than in the Scottish Highlands. Secondly, whereas in the Scottish Highlands, the glaciers appear to have stagnated in situ following initial active retreat, some of those farther south were active during much of the time their margins retreated.

The Mangxiang Formation black shales are the most important hydrocarbon source rocks in the Wuyu Basin. Trace and rare earth element (REEs) of the black shales from the Wuyu Basin were studied in order to understand their depositional environments and palaeoclimate. Thirty one black shale samples from the Wuyu Basin were analysed by inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry and X‐ray fluorescence. The black shales are characterized by moderate SiO₂ (52.55–58.73%) contents and medium K₂O/Na₂O (2.21–4.83) ratio values but relatively high MgO + Fe₂O₃ (5.8–6.91%) and Al₂O₃ (15.1–17.5%) contents. The Chemical Weathering Index of Alternation (CIA) ranges from 57 to 70, together with medium Th/U (2.66–4.97) ratio values, reflecting a weak to moderate degree of chemical weathering of the source area. The palaeoredox condition of black shale was slightly oxic (or dysoxic) during black shale deposition as evidenced by slightly Ce anomalies (0.92–0.99) and Mn enrichment (EF = 1.6). The moderate palaeosalinity values (9.32‰–17.75‰), together with medium B/Ga (3.90–5.57) ratio values, indicate a brackish water environment. The palaeoclimate index ∑(Fe + Mn + Cr + Ni + V + Co)/∑(Ca + Mg + Sr + Ba + K + Na) ranges from 0.28 to 0.50 and low Sr/Ba (0.15–1.22) ratio values, indicating a semiarid to semimoist climatic condition during the sedimentation of the black shale. The high ω(La)_N/ω(Yb)_N ratio values (1.02–1.09) indicate a fast sedimentary rate during black shale deposition. In this study, a preservation model of the Mangxiang Formation black shale was established. The model indicates that excellent preservation may be the major controlling factor for the accumulation of organic matter. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The voluminous Pan‐African calc‐alkaline granitic suite of the Ras Gharib crustal segment in northeastern Eygpt provides a typical example of orogenic magmatism. The 552 ± 7 Ma‐old granodiorite–adamellite and leucogranite suite is compositionally broad (58 to 77 wt.% SiO₂) and exhibits calc‐alkaline geochemical trends and trace‐element characteristics typical of the volcanic‐arc granites. The rocks contain oligoclase, albite, K‐feldspar, calcic amphibole, biotite, titanite, zircon, and magnetite. The suite exhibits typical features characteristic of I‐type granites.

We contend that the magma was formed by partial melting of a modified oceanic crust at an active continental margin during the late stage of the Pan‐African orogeny. The process may have involved assimilation of Early Pan‐African dioritic country rocks. The more felsic units were produced by progressive fractionation of that magma. The petrological–geochemical evidence suggest that the Pan‐African crust in northeastern Egypt did not develop in an extensional tectonic regime, as proposed recently.

The Messinian Qawasim and Abu Madi formations are the main hydrocarbon exploration targets in the onshore Nile Delta. Qawasim Formation constitutes prograditional deltaic system from prodelta and distal delta‐front (distal deltaic facies) to proximal delta‐front and delta‐plain (proximal deltaic facies). Abu Madi sediments on the other hand change upward from continental subaerial gravity‐flow and fluvial facies to marginal‐marine estuarine facies. The seismic attribute (RMS amplitude) and petrophysical analyses revealed that solely the Qawasim proximal deltaic and Abu Madi fluvial facies define the potential reservoir targets. The reservoir quality of the Qawasim distal deltaic and the Abu Madi estuarine facies was completely deteriorated during eodiagenesis by calcite and glauconite cementation (mean > 7.3% and 4.5%, respectively). Conversely, the depositional setting of the Qawasim proximal deltaic and Abu Madi fluvial facies favoured a precipitation of scattered eodiagenetic calcite (mean < 2.5%), which supported the facies framework against mechanical compaction and preserved the intergranular volume (IGV). Chemical compaction, smectite infiltration, quartz cementation, and clay minerals authigenesis were more pronounced in the relatively deeper Abu Madi fluvial facies. These burial attributes caused a large‐scale reservoir heterogeneity. Therefore, the relatively shallower Qawasim proximal deltaic facies presents the best reservoir target in the Messinian sequence of the Nile Delta. This study reveals that in analogous systems, the depositional environment largely controls the diagenetic pathways and, hence, the reservoir quality.