Small game forgotten: Late Pleistocene foraging strategies in eastern Africa, and remote capture at Panga ya Saidi, Kenya

Quaternary Science Reviews - Tập 305 - Trang 108032 - 2023
Mary E. Prendergast1, Jennifer Miller2, Ogeto Mwebi3, Emmanuel Ndiema4, Ceri Shipton5,6, Nicole Boivin2,7,8,9, Michael Petraglia7,8,10
1Department of Anthropology, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
2Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
3Department of Zoology, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
4Department of Earth Sciences, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
5Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
6Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, College of Asia and the Pacific, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
7School of Social Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
8Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
9Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
10Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution (ARCHE), Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia

Tài liệu tham khảo

Ambrose, 1998, Chronology of the later stone age and food production in east Africa, J. Archaeol. Sci., 25, 377, 10.1006/jasc.1997.0277 Archer, 2021, Carrying capacity, population density and the later Pleistocene expression of backed artefact manufacturing traditions in Africa, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 376, 10.1098/rstb.2019.0716 Armstrong, 2016, Small mammal utilization by middle stone age humans at Die Kelders cave 1 and pinnacle point site 5-6, western cape province, South Africa, J. Hum. Evol., 101, 17, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.09.010 Assefa, 2006, Faunal remains from Porc-Epic: paleoecological and zooarchaeological investigations from a Middle Stone Age site in southeastern Ethiopia, J. Hum. Evol., 51, 50, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.01.004 Assefa, 2008, The large-mammal fauna from the Kibish Formation, J. Hum. Evol., 55, 501, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.015 Badenhorst, 2022, An initial assessment of zooarchaeological assemblage sizes from South Africa, Rev. Paléobiol., 41, 1 Basell, 2008, Middle Stone Age (MSA) site distributions in eastern Africa and their relationship to Quaternary environmental change, refugia and the evolution of Homo sapiens, Quat. Sci. Rev., 27, 2484, 10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.09.010 Bergström, 2021, Origins of modern human ancestry, Nature, 590, 229, 10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5 Beyin, 2021, The western periphery of the Red Sea as a hominin habitat and dispersal corridor: marginal or central?, J. World Prehist, 34, 279, 10.1007/s10963-021-09157-5 Beyin, 2020, Filling the void: a study of sites characterized by Levallois and blade technologies in the Kilwa Basin, coastal Tanzania, J. Paleo. Archaeol., 1 Biesele, 2001, Ju/’hoan women's tracking knowledge and its contribution to their husbands' hunting success, Afr. Stud. Monogr., 26, 67 Blackburn, 1982, In the land of the milk and honey: Okiek adaptations to their forests and neighbours, 283 Blackburn, 1974, The Okiek and their history, Azania, 9, 139, 10.1080/00672707409511720 Blackburn, 1971 Blinkhorn, 2018, The structure of the middle stone age of eastern Africa, Quat. Sci. Rev., 195, 1, 10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.07.011 Blinkhorn, 2022, Evaluating refugia in recent human evolution in Africa, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 377, 10.1098/rstb.2020.0485 Blome, 2012, The environmental context for the origins of modern human diversity: a synthesis of regional variability in African climate 150,000–30,000 years ago, J. Hum. Evol., 62, 563, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.01.011 Boivin, 2013, East Africa and Madagascar in the Indian ocean world, J World Prehist, 26, 213, 10.1007/s10963-013-9067-4 Boivin, 2014, Indian Ocean food globalisation and Africa, Afr. Archaeol. Rev., 31, 547, 10.1007/s10437-014-9173-4 Brain, 1981 Brandt, 2012, Early MIS 3 occupation of Mochena Borago Rockshelter, southwest Ethiopian highlands: implications for Late Pleistocene archaeology, paleoenvironments and modern human dispersals, Quat. Int., 274, 38, 10.1016/j.quaint.2012.03.047 Bunn, 1981, Archaeological evidence for meat-eating by plio-pleistocene hominids from koobi fora and Olduvai Gorge, Nature, 291, 574, 10.1038/291574a0 Clark, 2019, The still Bay and pre-still Bay fauna from Sibudu cave: taphonomic and taxonomic analysis of the macromammal remains from the Wadley excavations, J. Paleolit. Archaeol., 2, 26, 10.1007/s41982-019-0021-6 Clark, 2017, The howieson's Poort fauna from Sibudu cave: documenting continuity and change within middle stone age industries, J. Hum. Evol., 107, 49, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.03.002 Clark, 2011, The evolution of human culture during the later Pleistocene: using fauna to test models on the emergence and nature of “modern” human behavior, J. Anthropol. Archaeol., 30, 273, 10.1016/j.jaa.2011.04.002 Clark, 2013, The evolutionary implications of variation in human hunting strategies and diet breadth during the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa, Curr. Anthropol., 54, S269, 10.1086/673386 Clark, 2008, Animal exploitation strategies during the South African middle stone age: howiesons Poort and post-howiesons Poort fauna from Sibudu cave, J. Hum. Evol., 54, 886, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.12.004 Collins, 2016, Foraging strategies during the final middle stone age occupation at Sibudu cave, South Africa, J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep., 5, 61 Collins, 2010, The faunal analysis of Magubike and Mlambalasi, two MSA-LSA archaeological sites from Iringa District, Tanzania, J. Taphonomy, 8, 33 Colonese, 2011, Marine mollusc exploitation in Mediterranean prehistory: an overview, Quat. Int., 239, 86, 10.1016/j.quaint.2010.09.001 Crowther, 2016, Coastal subsistence, maritime trade, and the colonization of small offshore islands in eastern African prehistory, J. I. Coast Archaeol., 11, 211, 10.1080/15564894.2016.1188334 Crowther, 2018, Subsistence mosaics, forager-farmer interactions, and the transition to food production in eastern Africa, Quat. Int., 489, 101, 10.1016/j.quaint.2017.01.014 Culley, 2021, Iron Age hunting and herding in coastal eastern Africa: ZooMS identification of domesticates and wild bovids at Panga ya Saidi, Kenya, J. Archaeol. Sci., 130, 10.1016/j.jas.2021.105368 d'Errico, 2020, Trajectories of cultural innovation from the middle to later stone age in eastern Africa: personal ornaments, bone artifacts, and ocher from Panga ya Saidi, Kenya, J. Hum. Evol., 141 Dale, 2004, Delayed-return hunter-gatherers in Africa? historic perspectives from the Okiek and archaeological perspectives from the Kansyore, 340 Davis, 2019 de la Peña, 2020 Domínguez-Rodrigo, 2006, New estimates of tooth mark and percussion mark frequencies at the FLK Zinj Site: the Carnivore-Hominid-Carnivore hypothesis falsified, J. Hum. Evol., 50, 170, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.09.005 Domínguez-Rodrigo, 2007 Domínguez-Rodrigo, 2003, Early hominid hunting and scavenging: a zooarcheological review, Evol. Anthropol., 12, 275, 10.1002/evan.10119 Dusseldorp, 2012, Tracking the influence of technological change on Middle Stone Age hunting strategies in South Africa, Quat. Int., 270, 70, 10.1016/j.quaint.2011.02.011 Dusseldorp, 2015, ‘Trapping the past’? hunting for remote capture techniques and planned coastal exploitation during MIS 5 at Blombos Cave and Klasies River, South Africa, Analecta Praehist, 45, 15 Dusseldorp, 2013, Carry that weight: coastal foraging and transport of marine resources during the South African Middle Stone Age, South. Afr. Humanit., 25, 105 Eren, 2014, Middle stone age archaeology at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Quat. Int., 322–323, 292, 10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.042 Estes, 1991 Faith, 2014, Late Pleistocene and Holocene mammal extinctions on continental Africa, Earth Sci. Rev., 128, 105, 10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.10.009 Faith, 2011, Taxonomic status and paleoecology of rusingoryx atopocranion (mammalia, artiodactyla), an extinct Pleistocene bovid from Rusinga island, Kenya, Quat. Res. (Duluth), 75, 697, 10.1016/j.yqres.2010.11.006 Faith, 2018, The measurement of taxonomic evenness in zooarchaeology, Archaeol Anthropol Sci, 10, 1419, 10.1007/s12520-017-0467-8 Faith, 2020, Late Pleistocene mammals from Kibogo, Kenya: systematic paleontology, paleoenvironments, and non-analog associations, J. Vertebrate Palaeontol., Current themes in Middle Stone Age Research, 40 Faith, 2018, Low-survival skeletal elements track attrition, not carcass transport behavior in Quaternary large mammal assemblages, 109 Faith, 2016, Environmental change, ungulate biogeography, and their implications for early human dispersals in equatorial East Africa, 233, 10.1007/978-94-017-7520-5_13 Faith, 2014, Biogeographic and evolutionary implications of an extinct late Pleistocene impala from the Lake Victoria basin, Kenya, J. Mamm. Evol., 21, 213, 10.1007/s10914-013-9238-1 Faith, 2015, Paleoenvironmental context of the middle stone age record from Karungu, Lake Victoria basin, Kenya, and its implications for human and faunal dispersals in east Africa, J. Hum. Evol., 83, 28, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.03.004 Faulkner, 2021, 67,000 years of coastal engagement at Panga ya Saidi, eastern Africa, PLoS One, 16, 10.1371/journal.pone.0256761 Gifford, 1981, Taphonomy and paleoecology: a critical review of archaeology's sister disciplines, Adv. Archaeol. Method Theor., 4, 365, 10.1016/B978-0-12-003104-7.50013-2 Gifford-Gonzalez, 2018 Gifford-Gonzalez, 2011, East African pastoralism: routes, outcomes, questions, 27 Gifford-Gonzalez, 2003, The fauna from Ele Bor: evidence for the persistence of foragers into the Later Holocene of arid North Kenya, Afr. Archaeol. Rev., 20, 81, 10.1023/A:1024410814287 Gifford-Gonzalez, 1998, 115 Gliganic, 2012, New ages for Middle and Later Stone Age deposits at Mumba Rockshelter, Tanzania: optically stimulated luminescence dating of quartz and feldspar grains, J. Hum. Evol., 62, 533, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.02.004 Goldstein, 2022, Hunter-gatherer technological organization and responses to Holocene climate change in coastal, lakeshore, and grassland ecologies of eastern Africa, Quat. Sci. Rev., 280, 10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107390 Gramly, 1976 Groucutt, 2015, Rethinking the dispersal of Homo sapiens out of Africa, Evol. Anthropol., 24, 149, 10.1002/evan.21455 Grove, 2020, Neural networks differentiate between middle and later stone age lithic assemblages in eastern Africa, PLoS One, 15, 10.1371/journal.pone.0237528 Gutherz, 2014, The hargeisan revisited: lithic industries from shelter 7 of Laas Geel, somaliland and the transition between the middle and late stone age in the Horn of Africa, Quat. Int., 343, 69, 10.1016/j.quaint.2014.04.038 Hawkes, 2002, Showing off, handicap signaling, and the evolution of men's work, Evol. Anthropol., 11, 58, 10.1002/evan.20005 Hawkes, 2001, Hunting and nuclear families: some lessons from the Hadza about men's work, Curr. Anthropol., 42, 681, 10.1086/322559 Hawkes, 1991, Hunting income patterns among the Hadza: big game, common goods, foraging goals and the evolution of the human diet, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B, 334, 243, 10.1098/rstb.1991.0113 Helm, 2012, Exploring agriculture, interaction and trade on the eastern African littoral: preliminary results from Kenya, Azania, 47, 39, 10.1080/0067270X.2011.647947 Ingrams, 1931 Inskeep, 1962, The age of the kondoa rock paintings in the light of recent excavations at kisese II rock shelter, 249 Jenkins, 2017, Evaluating the potential for tactical hunting in the Middle Stone Age: insights from a bonebed of the extinct bovid, Rusingoryx atopocranion, J. Hum. Evol., 108, 72, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.11.004 Jones, 2020 Jones, 2022, 20,000 years of small game hunting in southern Somalia, Quat. Int. S1040618222001975, 10.1016/j.quaint.2022.06.004 Jones, 2018, Hunter-gatherer reliance on inselbergs, big game, and dwarf antelope at the Rifle Range Site, Buur Hakaba, southern Somalia ∼20,000−5,000 BP, Quat. Int., 471, 55, 10.1016/j.quaint.2017.09.030 Kent, 1993, Sharing in an egalitarian Kalahari community, Man, 28, 479, 10.2307/2804236 Kingdon, 1997 Klein, 1981, Stone Age predation on small African bovids, S. Afr. Archaeol. Bull., 36, 55, 10.2307/3888494 Kohl-Larsen, 1943 Lam, 2003, Bone density studies in zooarchaeology, J. Archaeol. Sci., 30, 1701, 10.1016/S0305-4403(03)00065-7 Langley, 2016, Poison arrows and bone utensils in late Pleistocene eastern Africa: evidence from Kuumbi Cave, Zanzibar, Azania, 51, 155, 10.1080/0067270X.2016.1173302 Leakey, 1931 Lesur, 2016, Paleoenvironmental and biogeographic implications of terminal Pleistocene large mammals from the ziway–shala basin, main Ethiopian Rift, Ethiopia, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 449, 567, 10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.02.053 Lipson, 2020, Ancient West African foragers in the context of African population history, Nature, 577, 665, 10.1038/s41586-020-1929-1 Lipson, 2022, Ancient DNA and deep population structure in sub-Saharan African foragers, Nature, 603, 290, 10.1038/s41586-022-04430-9 Lombard, 2010, Indications of bow and stone-tipped arrow use 64 000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Antiquity, 84, 635, 10.1017/S0003598X00100134 Lupo, 2005, Small prey hunting technology and zooarchaeological measures of taxonomic diversity and abundance: ethnoarchaeological evidence from Central African forest foragers, J. Anthropol. Archaeol., 24, 335, 10.1016/j.jaa.2005.02.002 Lupo, 2002, Upper Paleolithic net-hunting, small prey exploitation, and women's work effort: a view from the ethnographic and ethnoarchaeological record of the Congo Basin, J. Archaeol. Method Theor, 9, 147, 10.1023/A:1016578224794 Marean, 2016, The transition to foraging for dense and predictable resources and its impact on the evolution of modern humans, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 371, 10.1098/rstb.2015.0239 Marean, 1997, Hunter–gatherer foraging strategies in tropical grasslands: model building and testing in the East African Middle and Later Stone Age, J. Anthropol. Archaeol., 16, 189, 10.1006/jaar.1997.0309 Marean, 1992, Hunter to herder: large mammal remains from the hunter-gatherer occupation at Enkapune ya Muto rock-shelter, central Rift, Kenya, Afr. Archaeol. Rev., 10, 65, 10.1007/BF01117697 Marean, 1992, Implications of Late Quaternary mammalian fauna from Lukenya Hill (south-central Kenya) for paleoenvironmental change and faunal extinctions, Quat. Res. (Duluth), 37, 239, 10.1016/0033-5894(92)90085-W Marean, 1991, Late Quaternary extinct ungulates of East Africa and palaeoenvironmental implications, Nature, 350, 418, 10.1038/350418a0 Marean, 1991, Impact of carnivore ravaging on zooarchaeological measures of element abundance, Am. Antiq., 56, 645, 10.2307/281542 Marlowe, 2010 Marshall, 1995, Hunting, fishing and herding pastoralists of western Kenya: the fauna from Gogo Falls, Archaeozoologia, 7, 7 Martinón-Torres, 2021, Earliest known human burial in Africa, Nature, 593, 95, 10.1038/s41586-021-03457-8 Masao, 2015, A newly discovered MSA/LSA variant or Masasian: report of archaeological investigation of south eastern Ranzania, Pyrex J. of Hist. Culture, 1, 1 Masele, 2021, Zooarchaeology and taphonomic aspects of later stone age faunal assemblage from Loiyangalani site in Serengeti national park, Tanzania, Tanzan. J. Sci., 47, 1073, 10.4314/tjs.v47i3.18 Masele, 2020, Testing meat-eating by middle stone age hominins at Loiyangalani open-air site in Serengeti national park, Tanzania, Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci., 12, 14, 10.1007/s12520-020-01012-6 Masele, 2017 Masele, 2021, Zooarchaeology of the middle stone age in Magubike rockshelter, Iringa region, Tanzania, Afr. Archaeol. Rev., 38, 275, 10.1007/s10437-021-09429-7 McBrearty, 2000, The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior, J. Hum. Evol., 39, 453, 10.1006/jhev.2000.0435 McCall, 2012, Still Bay and Howiesons Poort foraging strategies: recent research and models of culture change, Afr. Archaeol. Rev., 29, 7, 10.1007/s10437-012-9107-y Mehlman, 1989 Miller, 2022, Ostrich eggshell beads reveal 50,000-year-old social network in Africa, Nature, 601, 234, 10.1038/s41586-021-04227-2 Mirazón Lahr, 2016, The shaping of human diversity: filters, boundaries and transitions, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 371, 10.1098/rstb.2015.0241 Mitchell, 2013, Southern African hunter-gatherers of the last 25,000 years Mutundu, 1999 Omi, 1986 Ossendorf, 2019, Middle Stone Age foragers resided in high elevations of the glaciated Bale Mountains, Ethiopia, Science, 365, 583, 10.1126/science.aaw8942 Peters, 1990, Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers at Ishango (eastern-Zaire): the faunal evidence, Rev. Paléobiol., 9, 73 Pleurdeau, 2014, Cultural change or continuity in the late MSA/early LSA of southeastern Ethiopia? the site of Goda Buticha, Dire Dawa area, Quat. Int., 343, 117, 10.1016/j.quaint.2014.02.001 Plug, 2017, Middle and later stone age hunters and their prey in southern Africa, 385 Prendergast, 2010, Kansyore Fisher-foragers and transitions to food production in east Africa: the view from wadh lang'o, nyanza province, western Kenya, Azania, 45, 83, 10.1080/00672700903291765 Prendergast, 2007, New excavations at Mumba rockshelter, Tanzania, J. Afr. Archaeol., 5, 217, 10.3213/1612-1651-10093 Prendergast, 2009, Late Holocene zooarchaeology in East Africa: ethnographic analogues and interpretive challenges, Documenta Archaeobiologiae, 203 Prendergast, 2017, Reconstructing Asian faunal introductions to eastern Africa from multi-proxy biomolecular and archaeological datasets, PLoS One, 12, 10.1371/journal.pone.0182565 Prendergast, 2017, Dietary diversity on the Swahili Coast: the fauna from two Zanzibar trading locales, Int. J. Osteoarchaeol., 27, 621, 10.1002/oa.2585 Prendergast, 2016, Continental island formation and the archaeology of defaunation on Zanzibar, eastern Africa, PLoS One, 11, 10.1371/journal.pone.0149565 Quintana Morales, 2017, Animals in the Swahili world, 335 Ranhorn, 2018, New radiocarbon dates from Nasera Rockshelter (Tanzania): implications for studying spatial patterns in Late Pleistocene technology, J. Afr. Archaeol., 16, 211, 10.1163/21915784-20180011 Reynard, 2016, Subsistence strategies in the southern cape during the howiesons Poort: taphonomic and zooarchaeological analyses of Klipdrift shelter, South Africa, Quat. Int., 404, 2, 10.1016/j.quaint.2015.07.041 Roberts, 2020, Late Pleistocene to Holocene human palaeoecology in the tropical environments of coastal eastern Africa, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 537, 10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.109438 Roberts, 2018, Defining the ‘generalist specialist’ niche for Pleistocene Homo sapiens, Nat. Human Behav., 2, 542, 10.1038/s41562-018-0394-4 Robinson, 2022, Investigating habitat heterogeneity of Late Pleistocene archaeological sites in eastern Africa from stable isotopes, Hist. Biol., 34, 674, 10.1080/08912963.2021.1942465 Robinson, 2018, Stable isotope evidence for (mostly) stable local environments during the South African Middle Stone Age from Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, J. Archaeol. Sci., 100, 32, 10.1016/j.jas.2018.10.002 Rowan, 2015, Taxonomy and paleoecology of fossil Bovidae (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from the Kibish Formation, southern Ethiopia: implications for dietary change, biogeography, and the structure of the living bovid faunas of East Africa, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 420, 210, 10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.12.017 Russell, 2011 Scerri, 2021, Continuity of the middle stone age into the Holocene, Sci. Rep., 11, 70, 10.1038/s41598-020-79418-4 Scerri, 2018, Did our species evolve in subdivided populations across Africa, and why does it matter?, Trends Ecol. Evol., 33, 582, 10.1016/j.tree.2018.05.005 Schlebusch, 2018, Tales of human migration, admixture, and selection in Africa, Annu. Rev. Genom. Hum. Genet., 19, 405, 10.1146/annurev-genom-083117-021759 Shipton, 2021, The middle to later stone age transition at Panga ya Saidi, in the tropical coastal forest of eastern Africa, J. Hum. Evol., 153, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2021.102954 Shipton, 2013, Intersections, networks and the genesis of social complexity on the nyali coast of east Africa, Afr. Archaeol. Rev., 30, 427, 10.1007/s10437-013-9140-5 Shipton, 2018, 78,000-year-old record of middle and later stone age innovation in an east african tropical forest, Nat. Commun., 9, 1832, 10.1038/s41467-018-04057-3 Silberbauer, 1981 Skoglund, 2017, Reconstructing prehistoric African population structure, Cell, 171, 59, 10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049 Spear, 1981 Stewart, 1989 Stiles, 1982, A history of the hunting peoples of the northern East Africa coast: ecological and socio-economic considerations, Paideuma, 28, 165 Stiner, 1990, The use of mortality patterns in archaeological studies of hominid predatory adaptations, J. Anthropol. Archaeol., 9, 305, 10.1016/0278-4165(90)90010-B Stringer, 2016, The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 371, 10.1098/rstb.2015.0237 Sykes, 2014 Thompson, 2020 Thompson, 2005, The impact of post-depositional processes on bone surface modification frequencies: a corrective strategy and its application to the Loiyangalani site, Serengeti Plain, Tanzania, J. Taphonomy, 3, 57 Thompson, 2021, Early human impacts and ecosystem reorganization in southern-central Africa, Sci. Adv., 7, 10.1126/sciadv.abf9776 Trapani, 2008, Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo valley, Ethiopia, J. Hum. Evol., 55, 521, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017 Tryon, 2019, The middle/later stone age transition and cultural dynamics of late Pleistocene east Africa, Evol. Anthropol., 28, 267, 10.1002/evan.21802 Tryon, 2016, A demographic perspective on the middle to later stone age transition from Nasera rockshelter, Tanzania, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 371, 10.1098/rstb.2015.0238 Tryon, 2013, Variability in the middle stone age of eastern Africa, Curr. Anthropol., 54, S234, 10.1086/673752 Tryon, 2010, The Pleistocene archaeology and environments of the wasiriya beds, Rusinga island, Kenya, J. Hum. Evol., 59, 657, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.020 Tryon, 2014, Sites on the landscape: paleoenvironmental context of late Pleistocene archaeological sites from the Lake Victoria basin, equatorial East Africa, Quat. Int., 331, 20, 10.1016/j.quaint.2013.05.038 Tryon, 2019, Excavating the archives: the 1956 excavation of the late pleistocene-holocene sequence at kisese II (Tanzania), 215 Tryon, 2018, Middle and later stone age chronology of kisese II rockshelter (UNESCO world heritage kondoa rock-art sites), Tanzania, PLoS One, 13, 10.1371/journal.pone.0192029 Tryon, 2012, Late Pleistocene artefacts and fauna from Rusinga and Mfangano islands, Lake Victoria, Kenya, Azania, 47, 14, 10.1080/0067270X.2011.647946 van Neer, 1984, Faunal remains from Matupi cave, an Iron age and late stone age site in northeastern zaire. Communications from the royal academy of sciences, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium, 46, 57 van Noten, 1977, Excavations at Matupi cave, Antiquity, 51, 35, 10.1017/S0003598X00100572 Villa, 1991, Breakage patterns of human long bones, J. Hum. Evol., 21, 27, 10.1016/0047-2484(91)90034-S Ville, 1995, The Waata of Tsavo-Galana: hunting and trading in their semi-arid coastal hinterland, Kenya Past And Present, 27, 21 Wadley, 2021, What stimulated rapid, cumulative innovation after 100,000 years ago?, J. Archaeol. Method Theor, 28, 120, 10.1007/s10816-020-09499-y Wadley, 2015, Those marvellous millennia: the middle stone age of southern Africa, Azania, 50, 155, 10.1080/0067270X.2015.1039236 Wadley, 2010, Were snares and traps used in the Middle Stone Age and does it matter? a review and a case study from Sibudu, South Africa, J. Hum. Evol., 58, 179, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.10.004 Walker, 1985 Walsh, 2007, Island subsistence: hunting, trapping and the translocation of wildlife in the Western Indian Ocean, Azania, 42, 83, 10.1080/00672700709480452 Walsh, 1990, The Degere: forgotten hunter-gatherers of the East African coast, Camb. Anthropol., 14, 68 Wang, 2020, Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa, Sci. Adv., 6 White, 1983 Will, 2019, Timing and trajectory of cultural evolution on the African continent 200,000-30,000 years ago, 25 Woodburn, 1982, Egalitarian societies, Man, 17, 431, 10.2307/2801707 Wurz, 2020 Wylie, 1985, The reaction against analogy, Adv. Archaeol. Method Theor., 8, 63, 10.1016/B978-0-12-003108-5.50008-7 Yellen, 1996, Behavioural and taphonomic patterning at kantanda 9: a middle stone age site, kivu province, zaire, J. Archaeol. Sci., 23, 915, 10.1006/jasc.1996.0086 Yellen, 1991, Small mammals: post-discard patterning of !Kung San faunal remains, J. Anthropol. Archaeol., 10, 152, 10.1016/0278-4165(91)90018-S