Physiology of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis in Health and Dysregulation in Psychiatric and Autoimmune Disorders

Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America - Tập 23 Số 3 - Trang 451-466 - 1994
Constantine Tsigos1, George P. Chrousos2
1From the Developmental Endocrinology Branch, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
2The Pediatric Endocrinology Section, Developmental Endocrinology Branch, and Pediatric Endocrinology Training Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Abou-Samra, 1987, Mechanisms of action of CRF and other regulators of ACTH release in pituitary corticotrophs, Ann NY Acad Sei, 512, 67, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb24951.x

Aghajanian, 1982, α2-Adrenoreceptor-mediated hyperpolarization of locus ceruleus neurons: Intracellular studies in vivo, Science, 215, 1394, 10.1126/science.6278591

Aguilera, 1987, Corticotropin-releasing factor receptors: Distribution and regulation in brain, pituitary, and peripheral tissues, Ann NY Acad Sei, 512, 48, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb24950.x

Aguilera, 1990, Receptors for corticotropin-releasing factor, 154

Aguilera, 1993, Factors controlling steroid biosynthesis in the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal, J Steroid Biochem Molec Biol, 45, 147, 10.1016/0960-0760(93)90134-I

Akira, 1990, Biology of multifunctional cytokines: IL-6 and related molecules (IL-1 and TNF), FASEB J, 4, 2860, 10.1096/fasebj.4.11.2199284

Al-Damluji, 1987, Effect of adrenaline on basal and ovine corticotropin-releasing factor-stimulated ACTH secretion in man, J Endocrinol, 112, 145, 10.1677/joe.0.1120145

Alzein, 1984, Evidence that CRF stimulates vasopressin secretion from isolated neurointermediate pituitary, Neuroendocrinology, 6, 151

Antoni, 1986, Hypothalamic regulation of adrenocorticotropin secretion: Advances since the discovery of 41-residue corticotropin-releasing factor, Endocr Rev, 7, 351, 10.1210/edrv-7-4-351

Antoni, 1987, Receptors mediating the CRH effects of vasopressin and oxytocin, Ann NY Acad Sei, 512, 195, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb24961.x

Antoni, 1993, Vasopressinergic control of pituitary adrenocorticotropin secretion comes of age, Front Neuroendocrinol, 14, 76, 10.1006/frne.1993.1004

Bardeleben, 1989, Human CRH stimulation response during acute withdrawal and after medium-term abstention from alcohol abuse, Psychoneuroendocrinology, 14, 441, 10.1016/0306-4530(89)90043-7

Behan, 1989, Isolation of the human plasma corticotropin-releasing factor-binding protein, J Endocrinol, 122, 23, 10.1677/joe.0.1220023

Benker, 1990, TSH secretion in Cushing’s syndrome: Relation to glucocorticoid excess, diabetes, goiter, and the “the sick euthyroid syndrome”, Clin Endocrinol, 33, 779, 10.1111/j.1365-2265.1990.tb03915.x

Bernardini, 1989, The alkyl-ether phospholipid plateletactivating factor is a stimulator of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the rat, Endocrinology, 125, 1067, 10.1210/endo-125-2-1067

Bernardini, 1989, Arachidonic acid metabolites modulate rat hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone in vitro, Neuroendocrinology, 50, 708, 10.1159/000125303

Bernardini, 1990, Interactions between tumor necrosis factor-alpha, hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone, and adrenocorticotropin secretion in the rat, Endocrinology, 126, 2876, 10.1210/endo-126-6-2876

Bernini, 1989, Effects of fenfluramine and ritanserin on prolactin response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia in obese patients: Evidence of failure of the serotonergic system, Horm Res, 31, 133, 10.1159/000181102

Bernton, 1987, Release of multiple hormones by a direct effect of interleukin-1 on pituitary cells, Science, 238, 519, 10.1126/science.2821620

Besedovsky, 1992, Immune-neuroendocrine circuits: Integrative role of cytokines, Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 13, 61

Burguera, 1990, Dual and selective action of glucocorticoids upon basal and stimulated growth hormone release in man, Neuroendocrinology, 51, 51, 10.1159/000125315

Busbridge, 1991, Stress and the single cytokine: Interleukin modulation of the pituitary-adrenal axis, Mol Cell Endocrinol, 82, C209, 10.1016/0303-7207(91)90021-J

Calogero, 1988, Multiple regulatory feedback loops on hypothalamic cortictropin releasing hormone secretion, J Clin Invest, 82, 767, 10.1172/JCI113677

Calogero, 1988, Effect of the catecholamines upon rat hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone secretion in vitro: Clinical implications, J Clin Invest, 82, 839, 10.1172/JCI113687

Calogero, 1988, Interaction between gabaergic neurotransmission and rat hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone in vitro, Brain Res, 463, 28, 10.1016/0006-8993(88)90523-9

Calogero, 1990, Mechanisms of serotonin agonist-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the rat, Endocrinology, 126, 1888, 10.1210/endo-126-4-1888

Calogero, 1992, Neurotransmitter-induced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responsiveness is defective in inflammatory disease-susceptible Lewis rats: In vivo and in vitro studies suggesting globally defective hypothalamic CRH secretion, Neuroendocrinology, 55, 600, 10.1159/000126173

Casanueva, 1990, Acute administration of corticosteroids: A new and peculiar stimulus of growth hormone secretion in man, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 70, 234, 10.1210/jcem-70-1-234

Chatterton RT, Masi AT, Comstock GW, et al: Decreased androgenic-anabolic hormone levels in sera of white women before onset of rheumatoid arthritis: A controlled, prospective study. 57th Annual Meeting, American College of Rheumatology, San Antonio, B207 (abstract), 1993

Chen, 1993, Expression cloning of a human corticotropinreleasing factor receptor, Proc Natl Acad Sei U S A, 90, 8967, 10.1073/pnas.90.19.8967

Chikanza, 1992, Defective hypothalamic response to immune/inflammatory stimuli in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, Arthritis Rheum, 35, 1281, 10.1002/art.1780351107

Chicanza, 1992, Abnormal Neuroendocrine-Immune Communications in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis, Eur J Clin Invest, 22, 635, 10.1111/j.1365-2362.1992.tb01422.x

Chrousos, 1988, Mechanisms of Physical and Emotional Stress, vol 245, 10.1007/978-1-4899-2064-5

Chrousos, 1992, The concepts of stress system disorders: Overview of behavioral and physical homeostasis, JAMA, 267, 1244, 10.1001/jama.1992.03480090092034

Chrousos, 1992, Regulation and dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: the corticotropin-releasing hormone perspective, Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am, 21, 833, 10.1016/S0889-8529(18)30191-9

Chrousos, 1993, NIH Conference. Syndromes of glucocorticoid resistance, Ann Intern Med, 119, 1113, 10.7326/0003-4819-119-11-199312010-00009

Cole, 1991, Corticotropin-releasing factor, stress, and animal behavior, 119

Crofford, 1992, Local secretion of corticotropin releasing hormone in the joints of Lewis rats with inflammatory arthritis, J Clin Invest, 90, 2555, 10.1172/JCI116150

Crofford, 1993, Corticotropin-releasing hormone in synovial fluids and tissues of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis, J Immunol, 151, 1587, 10.4049/jimmunol.151.3.1587

Cunningham, 1990, The organization of adrenergic inputs to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the rat hypothalamus, J Comp Neurol, 292, 651, 10.1002/cne.902920413

Davis, 1966, Evidence for the stimulation by adrenocorticotropin hormone of the conversion of cholesterol esters to cholesterol in the adrenal in vivo, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 24, 805, 10.1016/0006-291X(66)90398-6

DeBellis, 1994, Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in sexually abused girls, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 78, 249

de Kloet, 1991, Brain corticosteroid receptor balance and homeostatic control, Front Neuroendocrinol, 12, 95

Demitrack, 1991, Evidence of impaired activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 73, 1224, 10.1210/jcem-73-6-1224

DeSouza, 1985, Corticotropin-releasing factor receptors are widely distributed within the rat central nervous system, J Neurosci, 5, 3189, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.05-12-03189.1985

Dieguez, 1988, Growth hormone neuroregulation and its alterations in disease states, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 28, 109, 10.1111/j.1365-2265.1988.tb01209.x

Doherty, 1990, Time to recovery of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis following curative resection of adrenal tumors in patients with Cushing’s syndrome, Surgery, 108, 1085

Duick, 1979, Thyroid axis in patients with Cushing’s syndrome, Arch Intern Med, 139, 767, 10.1001/archinte.1979.03630440033013

Dunn, 1990, Physiological and behavioral responses to corticotropin-releasing factor administration: Is CRF a mediator of anxiety or stress response?, Brain Res Rev, 15, 71, 10.1016/0165-0173(90)90012-D

Eipper, 1980, Structure and biosynthesis of pro-adrenocorticotropin/endorphin and related peptides, Endocr Rev, 1, 1, 10.1210/edrv-1-1-1

Elgerot, 1978, Psychological and physiological changes during tobacco-abstinence in habitual smokers, J Clin Psychol, 34, 759, 10.1002/1097-4679(197807)34:3<759::AID-JCLP2270340338>3.0.CO;2-Y

Engler, 1989, Studies on the secretion of corticotropin releasing factor and arginine vasopressin into hypophyseal portal circulation of the conscious sheep, Neuroendocrinology, 49, 367, 10.1159/000125141

Foote, 1983, Nucleus Locus ceruleus: New evidence for anatomical and physiological specificity, Physiol Rev, 63, 844, 10.1152/physrev.1983.63.3.844

Frim, 1990, Differential regulation of corticotropinreleasing hormone mRNA in rat brain, Am J Physiol, 258, E686

Fukata, 1988, Effects of recombinant human interleukin-1α, -1β, -2 and -6 on ACTH synthesis and release in the mouse pituitary tumour cell line AtT-20, J Endocrinol, 122, 33, 10.1677/joe.0.1220033

Fuller, 1992, The involvement of serotonin in regulation of pituitary-adrenocortical function, Front Neuroendocrinol, 13, 250

Gillies, 1982, Corticotropin-releasing activity of the new CRF is potentiated several times by vasopressin, Nature, 299, 355, 10.1038/299355a0

Goland, 1988, Biologically active corticotropin-releasing hormone in maternal and fetal plasma during pregnancy, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 159, 884, 10.1016/S0002-9378(88)80162-5

Gold, 1986, Responses to the corticotropin-releasing hormone in the hypercortisolism of depression and Cushing’s disease: Pathophysiologic and diagnostic implications, N Engl J Med, 314, 1329, 10.1056/NEJM198605223142101

Gold, 1986, Abnormal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function in anorexia nervosa: pathophysiologic mechanisms in underweight and weight-corrected patients, N Engl J Med, 314, 1335, 10.1056/NEJM198605223142102

Gold, 1988, Clinical and biochemical manifestations of depression: relationship to the neurobiology of stress, part 1, N Engl J Med, 319, 348, 10.1056/NEJM198808113190606

Gold, 1988, Clinical and biochemical manifestations of depression: relationship to the neurobiology of stress, part 2, N Engl J Med, 319, 413, 10.1056/NEJM198808183190706

Gold, 1988, Basic and clinical studies with corticotropin releasing hormone: implications for a possible role in panic disorder, Psychiatr Clin North Am, 11, 327, 10.1016/S0193-953X(18)30500-8

Gomez, 1993, The pituitary corticotroph is not the rate-limiting step in the postoperative recovery of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in patients with Cushing’s syndrome, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 77, 173

Griep, 1993, Altered reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the primary fibromyalgia syndrome, J Rheumatol, 20, 469

Gwynne, 1982, The role of lipoproteins in steroidogenesis and cholesterol metabolism in steroidogenic glands, Endocr Rev, 3, 299, 10.1210/edrv-3-3-299

Harris, 1948, Neural control of the pituitary gland, Physiology Reviews, 28, 139, 10.1152/physrev.1948.28.2.139

Hofmann, 1974, Relations between chemical structure and function of adrenocorticotropin and melanocyte-stimulating hormones, Vol 14, 29

Horrocks, 1990, Patterns of ACTH and cortisol pulsatility over 24 hours in normal males and females, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 32, 127, 10.1111/j.1365-2265.1990.tb03758.x

Hurley, 1991, Mutation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in familial glucocorticoid resistance, J Clin Invest, 87, 680, 10.1172/JCI115046

Imura, 1991, Cytokines and endocrine function: Interaction between the immune and neuroendocrine systems, Clin Endocrinol, 35, 107, 10.1111/j.1365-2265.1991.tb03506.x

Insel, 1982, The dexamethasone suppression test in obsessive-compulsive disorder, Psychiatry Res, 6, 153, 10.1016/0165-1781(82)90003-8

Iranmanesh, 1990, Intensive venous sampling paradigms disclose high-frequency adrenocorticotropin release episodes in normal men, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 71, 1276, 10.1210/jcem-71-5-1276

Jonat, 1990, Antitumor promotion and anti-inflammation: Down modulation of AP-1 (fos/jun) activity by glucocorticoid hormone, Cell, 62, 1189, 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90395-U

Kahri, 1976, Steroid formation and differentiation of cortical cells in tissue culture of human fetal adrenals in the presence and absence of ACTH, Endocrinology, 98, 33, 10.1210/endo-98-1-33

Kamilaris, 1989, Effects of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism on the basal activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, Clin Res, 37, 360A

Kamilaris, 1987, Effect of altered thyroid hormone levels on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 65, 994, 10.1210/jcem-65-5-994

Karl, 1993, Familial glucocorticoid resistance caused by a splice site deletion in the human glucocorticoid receptor gene, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 76, 683

Karalis, 1991, Autocrine or paracrine inflammatory actions of corticotropin-releasing hormone in vivo, Science, 254, 421, 10.1126/science.1925600

Kaye, 1987, Elevated cerebrospinal fluid levels of immunoreactive corticotrpin-releasing hormone in anorexia nervosa: Relation to state of nutrition, adrenal function, and intensity of depression, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 64, 203, 10.1210/jcem-64-2-203

Keller-Wood, 1984, Corticosteroid inhibition of ACTH secretion, Endocr Rev, 5, 1, 10.1210/edrv-5-1-1

Kiss, 1992, Participation of α1-adrenergic receptors in the secretion of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone during stress, Neuroendocrinology, 56, 153, 10.1159/000126223

Kling, 1991, CSF levels of CRH, ACTH, and SRIF in Cushing’s syndrome, major depression, and normal volunteers: Physiological and pathophysiological interrelationships, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 72, 260, 10.1210/jcem-72-2-260

Kopelman, 1988, The cortisol response to corticotropinreleasing hormone is blunted in obesity, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 28, 15, 10.1111/j.1365-2265.1988.tb01197.x

Krieger, 1975, Rhythms of ACTH and corticosteroid secretion in health and disease and their experimental modification, J Steroid Biochem, 6, 785, 10.1016/0022-4731(75)90068-0

Krieger, 1980, ACTH, β-lipotropin, and related peptides in brain, pituitary and blood, Recent Prog Horm Res, 36, 272

Lamberts, 1984, Corticotropin-releasing factor and vasopressin exert a synergistic effect on adrenocorticotropin release in man, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 58, 298, 10.1210/jcem-58-2-298

Linton, 1988, A specific carrier substance for human corticotropin releasing factor in late gestational maternal plasma which could mask the ACTH-releasing activity, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 28, 315, 10.1111/j.1365-2265.1988.tb01218.x

Luger, 1987, Acute hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to the stress of treadmill excercise: physiologic adaptations to physical training, N Engl J Med, 316, 1309, 10.1056/NEJM198705213162105

Lundbland, 1988, Regulation of proopiomelanocortin gene expression in pituitary, Endocr Rev, 9, 135, 10.1210/edrv-9-1-135

MacAdams, 1986, Reduction in serum testosterone levels during chronic glucocorticoid therapy, Ann Intern Med, 140, 648, 10.7326/0003-4819-104-5-648

Malozowski, 1990, The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in infantile malnutrition, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 32, 461, 10.1111/j.1365-2265.1990.tb00886.x

Margioris, 1988, Human placenta and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, Adv Exp Med Biol, 245, 389, 10.1007/978-1-4899-2064-5_30

Mastorakos, 1993, Recombinant interleukin-6 activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in humans, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 77, 1690

Mendelson, 1988, Anterior pituitary, adrenal, and gonadal hormones during cocaine withdrawal, Am J Psychiatry, 145, 1094, 10.1176/ajp.145.9.1094

Mountjoy, 1992, The cloning of a family of genes that encode the melanocortin receptors, Science, 257, 1248, 10.1126/science.1325670

Munck, 1984, Physiological functions of glucocorticoids in stress and their relation to pharmacological actions, Endocr Rev, 5, 25, 10.1210/edrv-5-1-25

Naitoh, 1988, Interleukin-6 stimulates the secretion of adrenocorticotropin hormone in conscious freely moving rats, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 155, 1459, 10.1016/S0006-291X(88)81305-6

Nauta, 1986

Nemeroff, 1984, Elevated concentrations of CSF corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in depressed patients, Science, 226, 1342, 10.1126/science.6334362

Oki, 1981, Concomitant secretion of adrenocorticotropin, β-endorphin and y-melanotropin from perfused pituitary tumor cells of Cushing’s disease, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 52, 42, 10.1210/jcem-52-1-42

Orth, 1992, Corticotropin-releasing hormone in humans, Endocr Rev, 13, 164

Overton, 1989, Modulation of central nervous system actions of corticotropinreleasing factor by dynorphin-related peptides, Brain Res, 488, 233, 10.1016/0006-8993(89)90713-0

Pasquali, 1993, The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in obese women with different patterns of body fat distribution, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 77, 341

Plotsky, 1986, Opioid inhibition of immunoreactive corticotropin-releasing factor secretion into the hypophysial-portal circulation of rats, Regul Pept, 16, 235, 10.1016/0167-0115(86)90022-4

Potter, 1991, Cloning and characterization of the cDNAs for human and rat corticotropin-releasing factor-binding proteins, Nature, 349, 423, 10.1038/349423a0

Potter, 1992, The central distribution of a corticotropinreleasing factor (CRF)-binding protein predicts multiple sites and modes of interaction with CRF, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 89, 4192, 10.1073/pnas.89.9.4192

Pratt, 1990, Glucocorticoid receptor structure and the initial events in signal transduction, Prog Clin Bilo Res, 322, 119

Puddey, 1984, Haemodynamic and neuroendocrine consequences of stopping smoking—a controlled study, Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol, 11, 423, 10.1111/j.1440-1681.1984.tb00292.x

Rabin, 1988, Stress and reproduction: Interactions between the stress and reproductive axis, 377

Rabin, 1990, Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function in patients with the premenstrual syndrome, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 71, 1158, 10.1210/jcem-71-5-1158

Ramachandran, 1985, Corticotropin receptors, cyclic AMP, and steroidogenesis, Endocr Res, 10, 347, 10.1080/07435808409036506

Redekopp, 1986, Spontaneous and stimulated adrenocorticotropin and vasopressin pulsatile secretion in the pituitary venous effluent of the horse, Endocrinology, 118, 1410, 10.1210/endo-118-4-1410

Reichlin, 1993, Neuroendocrine-immune interactions, N Engl J Med, 329, 1246, 10.1056/NEJM199310213291708

Risher-Flowers, 1988, Circadian rhythms of cortisol during alcohol withdrawal, Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse, 7, 37, 10.1300/J251v07n03_06

Rittmaster, 1987, The effects of endogenous vasopressin on ACTH and cortisol secretion in man, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 64, 371, 10.1210/jcem-64-2-371

Rivier, 1982, In vivo corticotropin-releasing factor-induced secretion of adrenocorticotropin, β-endorphin and corticosterone, Endocrinology, 115, 882, 10.1210/endo-115-3-882

Rivier, 1984, Studies on the nature of the interaction between vasopressin and corticotropin-releasing factor on adrenocorticotropin release in the rat, Endocrinology, 115, 882, 10.1210/endo-115-3-882

Rivier, 1985, Involvement of corticotropin-releasing factor and somatostatin in stress-induced inhibition of growth hormone secretion in the rat, Endocrinology, 117, 2478, 10.1210/endo-117-6-2478

Rivier, 1986, Stress-induced inhibition of reproductive function: Role of endogenous corticotropin releasing factor, Science, 231, 607, 10.1126/science.3003907

Rivier, 1986, Mediation by corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) of adenohy-pophesial hormone secretion, Ann Rev Physiol, 48, 475, 10.1146/annurev.ph.48.030186.002355

Roth, 1983, Immunoreactive dynorphin-(l-8) and corticotropin-releasing factor in subpopulation of hypothalamic neurons, Science, 219, 189, 10.1126/science.6129700

Roy, 1993, The ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone test in type I diabetic patients and controls: Suggestion of mild chronic hypercortisolism, Metabolism, 42, 696, 10.1016/0026-0495(93)90235-G

Saffran, 1955, Release of corticotropin by anterior pituitary tissue in vitro, Can J Biochem Physiol, 33, 408, 10.1139/y55-054

Salas, 1990, Interleukin-6 and ACTH act synergistically to stimulate the release of corticosterone from adrenal gland cells, Clin Exp Immunol, 79, 470, 10.1111/j.1365-2249.1990.tb08114.x

Sanchez, 1990, The 56–59-kilodalton protein identified in untransformed steroid receptor complexes is a unique protein that exists in cytosol in a complex with both the 70 and 90 kilodalton heat shock proteins, Biochemistry, 29, 5145, 10.1021/bi00473a021

Saper, 1979, Direct hypothalamoautonomic connections, Brain Res, 117, 305, 10.1016/0006-8993(76)90738-1

Sapolsky, 1987, Interleukin-1 stimulates the secretion of hypothalamic corticotropin releasing factor, Science, 238, 522, 10.1126/science.2821621

Sasaki, 1987, Immunoreactive corticotropin-releasing hormone in human plasma during pregnancy, labor and delivery, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 64, 224, 10.1210/jcem-64-2-224

Scopa, 1993, Presence of immunoreactive corticotropin releasing hormone in thyroid lesions, Path Res Pract, 189, 809

Selye, 1950

Silverman, 1989, Corticotropin-releasing factor synapses within the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, Neuroendocrinology, 49, 291, 10.1159/000125131

Sirinathsinghji, 1983, Corticotropin-releasing factor is a potent inhibitor of sexual receptivity in the female rat, Nature, 305, 232, 10.1038/305232a0

Smith, 1988, Proopiomelanocortin processing in the pituitary, central nervous system, and peripheral tissues, Endocr Rev, 9, 159, 10.1210/edrv-9-1-159

Smith, 1993, Steroid receptors and their associated proteins, Mol Endocrinol, 7, 4

Sternberg, 1989, Inflammatory mediator-induced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation is defective in streptococcal cell arthritis in Lewis rats, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 86, 2374, 10.1073/pnas.86.7.2374

Sternberg, 1989, A central nervous defect in the stress response is associated with susceptibility to streptococcal cell wall arthritis in Lewis rats, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 86, 4771, 10.1073/pnas.86.12.4771

Sternberg, 1992, Corticotropin-releasing hormone-related behavioral and neuroendocrine responses to stress in Lewis and Fischer rats, Brain Res, 570, 54, 10.1016/0006-8993(92)90563-O

Sternberg, 1992, The stress response and the regulation of inflammatory disease: NIH combined clinical staff conference, Ann Intern Med, 117, 854, 10.7326/0003-4819-117-10-854

Sutton, 1982, Corticotropin-releasing factor produces behavioral activation in the rat, Nature, 297, 331, 10.1038/297331a0

Swanson, 1983, Organization of ovine corticotropinreleasing factor immunoreactive cells and fibers in the rat brain: An immunohisto-chemical study, Neuroendocrinology, 36, 165, 10.1159/000123454

Tait, 1970, Production of steroids by in vitro superfusion of endocrine tissue: II. Steroid output from whole, capsular and decapsulated adrenals of normal intact, hypophysectomized and hypophysectomized-nephrectomized rats as a function of time of perfusion, Endocrinology, 86, 360, 10.1210/endo-86-2-360

Tsigos, 1993, Diabetic neuropathy is associated with increased activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, J Clin Endocr Metab, 76, 554

Tsigos, 1993, Proopiomelanococtin is the predominant ACTH-related peptide in human cerebrospinal fluid, Clin Endocrinol Metab, 76, 620

Tsigos, 1993, Hereditary isolated glucocorticoid deficiency is associated with abnormalities of the adrenocorticotropin receptor gene, J Clin Invest, 92, 2485, 10.1172/JCI116853

Unterman, 1985, Glucocorticoid effects on somatomedins and somatomedin inhibitors, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 61, 618, 10.1210/jcem-61-4-618

Vale, 1981, Characterization of a 41-residue ovine hypothalamic peptide that stimulates secretion of corticotropin and beta-endorphin, Science, 213, 1394, 10.1126/science.6267699

Vale, 1983, Effects of synthetic ovine corticotropin-releasing factor, glucocorticoid, catecholamines, neuro-hypophyseal peptides, and other substances on cultuted corticotropic cells, Endocrinology, 113, 1121, 10.1210/endo-113-3-1121

Valentino, 1983, Corticotropin-releasing hormone activates noradrenergic neurons of the locus ceruleus, Brain Res, 270, 363, 10.1016/0006-8993(83)90615-7

Vamvakopoulos, 1993, Evidence of direct estrogen regulation of human corticotropin releasing hormone gene expression: Potential implications for the sexual dimorphism of the stress response and immune/inflammatory reaction, J Clin Invest, 92, 1896, 10.1172/JCI116782

Vanderpool, 1991, Evidence for hypothalamic CRH deficiency in patients with seasonal affective disorder, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 72, 1382

Veldhuis, 1990, Amplitude, but not frequency, modulation of adrenocorticotropin secretory bursts gives rise to the nyctohemeral rhythm of corticotropic axis in man, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 71, 452, 10.1210/jcem-71-2-452

Wand, 1991, Alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in actively drinking alcoholics, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 72, 1290, 10.1210/jcem-72-6-1290

Winter, 1990, A stimulatory effect of interleukin-1 on adrenocortical cortisol secretion mediated by prostaglandins, Endocrinology, 127, 1904, 10.1210/endo-127-4-1904

Weitzman, 1971, Twenty-four hour pattern of the episodic secretion of cortisol in normal subjects, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 33, 14, 10.1210/jcem-33-1-14

Witzmann, 1981

Yang-Yen, 1990, Transcriptional interference between c-jun and the glucocorticoid receptor: Mutual inhibition of DNA binding due to direct protein-protein interaction, Cell, 62, 1205, 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90396-V

Yehuda, 1990, Low urinary cortisol excretion in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder, J Nerv Ment Dis, 178, 366, 10.1097/00005053-199006000-00004