Half a century of measuring culture: Review of approaches, challenges, and limitations based on the analysis of 121 instruments for quantifying culture

Allik, 2004, Toward a geography of personality traits: patterns of profiles across 36 cultures, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35, 13, 10.1177/0022022103260382 Au, 2004, Intra-cultural variation and job autonomy in 42 countries, Organization Studies, 25, 1139, 10.1177/0170840604046345 Benet-Martinez, V. (2000). Examining interplay between personality and culture: Personality correlates of cultural, ethnic, and linguistic orientations Unpublished manuscript. Benet-Martinez, 2003, The interplay of cultural syndromes and personality in predicting life satisfaction: comparing Asian Americans and European Americans, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34, 38, 10.1177/0022022102239154 Bennett, 1977, Response characteristics of bilingual managers to organizational questionnaires, Personnel Psychology, 30, 29, 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1977.tb02318.x Bing, 2005 Bond, 2004, Culture-level dimensions of social axioms and their correlates across 41 cultures, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35, 548, 10.1177/0022022104268388 Bontempo, 1993, Translation fidelity of psychological scales: an item response theory analysis of an individualism–collectivism scale, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24, 149, 10.1177/0022022193242002 Carver, 1989, Assessing coping strategies: a theoretically based approach, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 267, 10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267 Cheung, 2000, Assessing extreme and acquiescent response sets in cross-cultural research using structural equations modeling, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31, 187, 10.1177/0022022100031002003 Chew, K. H. (1996). Beyond individualism–collectivism: additional constructs to consider. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene, WA, US. Cook, 1979 Costa, 1992 Denny, 2005, Researching cultural metaphors in action: metaphors of computing technology in contemporary U.S. life, Journal of Business Research, 58, 1456, 10.1016/j.jbusres.2003.10.015 Dorfman, 1988, Dimensions of national culture and effective leadership patterns: Hofstede revisited, 172-150 Durvasula, 2006, Examining the cross-national applicability of multi-item, multi-dimensional measures using generalizability theory, Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 469, 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400210 Earley, 1993, East meets West meets Mideast: further explorations of collectivistic and individualistic work groups, Academy of Management Journal, 36, 319, 10.2307/256525 England, 1967, Personal value systems of American managers, Academy of Management Journal, 10, 53, 10.2307/255244 Eylon, 1999, Exploring empowerment: cross-cultural differences along the power distance dimension, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23, 373, 10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00002-4 Fernandez, 1997, Hofstede's country classification 25years later, Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 43, 10.1080/00224549709595412 Furnham, 1984, Personality and values, Personality and Individual Differences, 5, 483, 10.1016/0191-8869(84)90018-7 Furrer, 2000, The relationships between culture and service quality perceptions: basis for cross-cultural market segmentation and resource allocation, Journal of Service Research, 2, 355, 10.1177/109467050024004 Gannon, 2004 Gannon, 2005, Cultural metaphors as frames of reference for nations, International Studies of Management & Organization, 35, 37, 10.1080/00208825.2005.11043744 Geertz, 1973 Gelfand, 1998, Toward a theory of tightness–looseness: further empirical evidence from the U.S. and Japan Gelfand, 2006, On the nature and importance of cultural tightness–looseness, Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1225, 10.1037/0021-9010.91.6.1225 Ghorpade, 1999, The use of personality measures in cross-cultural research: a test of three personality scales across two countries, Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 670, 10.1037/0021-9010.84.5.670 Haire, 1966 Hall, 1977 Hanges, 2006, Agitation over aggregation: clarifying the development of and the nature of the GLOBE scales, Leadership Quarterly, 10, 522, 10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.06.004 Harzing, 2006, Response styles in cross-national survey research, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 6, 243, 10.1177/1470595806066332 Harzing, 2002, The interaction between language and culture: a test of the cultural accommodation hypothesis in seven countries, Language and Intercultural Communication, 2, 120, 10.1080/14708470208668081 Heine, 2002, What's wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales?: The reference-group effect, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 903, 10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.903 Hofstede, 1980 Hofstede, 1991 Hofstede, 2001 Hofstede, 2002, Dimensions do not exist: a reply to Brendan McSweeney, Human Relations, 55, 11355, 10.1177/0018726702055011921 Hofstede, 2002, The pitfalls of cross-national survey research: a reply to the article by Spector et al. on the psychometric properties of the Hofstede Values Survey Module 1994, Applied Psychology, 51, 170, 10.1111/1464-0597.084_2 Hofstede, 2006, What did GLOBE really measure? Researchers' minds versus respondents' minds, Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 882, 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400233 Hofstede, 2004, Personality and culture revisited: linking traits and dimensions of culture, Cross-Cultural Research, 38, 52, 10.1177/1069397103259443 2004 Hui, 1988, Measurement of individualism–collectivism, Journal of Research in Personality, 22, 17, 10.1016/0092-6566(88)90022-0 Hui, 1986, Individualism–collectivism: a study of cross-cultural researchers, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 17, 225, 10.1177/0022002186017002006 Hui, 1989, Effects of culture and response format on extreme response style, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20, 296, 10.1177/0022022189203004 Hui, 1994, The shortened individualism–collectivism scale: its relationship to demographic and work-related variables, Journal of Research in Personality, 28, 409, 10.1006/jrpe.1994.1029 Hulin, 1982, Applications of item response theory to analysis of attitude scale translations, Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 818, 10.1037/0021-9010.67.6.818 Inglehart, 1997 Inglehart, 2004 Inglehart, 2005 Javeline, 1999, Response effects in polite cultures: a test of acquiescence in Kazakhstan, Public Opinion Quarterly, 63, 1, 10.1086/297701 Javidan, 2006, Conceptualizing and measuring cultures and their consequences: a comparative review of GLOBE's and Hofstede's approaches, Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 897, 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400234 Kim, 1978 Kluchhohn, 1961 Koltko-Rivera, 2004, The psychology of worldviews, Review of General Psychology, 8, 3, 10.1037/1089-2680.8.1.3 Kroeber, 1952 Kuhn, 1954, An empirical investigation of self attitudes, American Sociological Review, 19, 68, 10.2307/2088175 Lance, 2006, The sources of four commonly reported cutoff criteria: what did they really say?, Organizational Research Methods, 9, 202, 10.1177/1094428105284919 Laroche, 1998, Translation fidelity: an IRT analysis of Likert-type scale items from a culture change measure for Italian-Canadians, Advances in Consumer Research, 25, 240 Leung, 1989, On the empirical identification of dimensions for cross-cultural comparisons, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20, 133, 10.1177/0022022189202002 Leung, 2004, Social axioms: a model for social beliefs in multicultural perspective, Vol. 36, 119 Leung, 2002, Social axioms: the search for universal dimensions of general beliefs about how the world functions, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33, 286, 10.1177/0022022102033003005 Littauer, 1960, On some aspects of technological measurement, Management Technology, 1, 36 Marin, 1992, Extreme response style and acquiescence among Hispanics, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23, 498, 10.1177/0022022192234006 Marsh, D. R. (2003). Establishing the cross-cultural measurement equivalence of individualism–collectivism. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Washington State University. Maznevski, 1995, Measuring Culture in International Management: the Cultural Perspectives Questionnaire, 95-39 McCrae, 1997, Personality trait structure as a human universal, American Psychologist, 52, 509, 10.1037/0003-066X.52.5.509 McSweeney, 2002, Hofstede's model of national cultural differences and their consequences: a triumph of faith — a failure of analysis, Human Relations, 55, 89, 10.1177/0018726702055001602 Miller, 2002, Bringing culture to basic psychological theory—beyond individualism and collectivism: comment on Oyserman et al. (2002), Psychological Bulletin, 128, 97, 10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.97 Morgeson, 1999, The structure and function of collective constructs: implications for multilevel research and theory development, The Academy of Management Review, 24, 249, 10.5465/amr.1999.1893935 Nunnally, 1978 Offermann, 1997, Culture's consequences for leadership behavior: national values in action, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28, 342, 10.1177/0022022197283008 Oyserman, 2002, Rethinking individualism and collectivism: evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses, Psychological Bulletin, 128, 3, 10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.3 Paulson, 2005, Teaching international business concepts through the exchange of cultural metaphors, Journal of Teaching in International Business, 16, 81, 10.1300/J066v16n04_06 Peng, 1997, Validity problems comparing values across cultures and possible solutions, Psychological Methods, 2, 329, 10.1037/1082-989X.2.4.329 Peterson, 2006, Measurement metrics at aggregate level of analysis: implications for organizational culture research and the GLOBE project, Leadership Quarterly, 17, 506, 10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.07.001 Riordan, 1994, A central question in cross-cultural research: do employees of different cultures interpret work-related measures in an equivalent manner?, Journal of Management, 20, 643, 10.1177/014920639402000307 Rokeach, 1973 Ryan, 1999, Employee attitude surveys in a multinational organization: considering language and culture in assessing measurement equivalence, Personnel Psychology, 52, 37, 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb01812.x Schaffer, 2003, A review of cross-cultural methodologies for organizational research: a best-practices approach, Organizational Research Methods, 6, 169, 10.1177/1094428103251542 Schimmack, 2005, Individualism: a valid and important dimension of cultural differences between nations, Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 17, 10.1207/s15327957pspr0901_2 Schwartz, 1992, Universals in the content and structure of values: theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries, 1, 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60281-6 Schwartz, 1994, Beyond individualism/collectivism: new cultural dimensions of values, 85 Schwartz, 2004, Evaluating the structure of human values with confirmatory factor analysis, Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 230, 10.1016/S0092-6566(03)00069-2 Schwarz, 1999, Self-reports: how the questions shape the answers, American Psychologist, 54, 93, 10.1037/0003-066X.54.2.93 Singelis, 1994, The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals, Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 580, 10.1177/0146167294205014 Singelis, 1995, Horizontal and vertical dimensions of individualism and collectivism: a theoretical and measurement refinement, Cross-Cultural Research: the Journal of Comparative Social Science, 29, 240, 10.1177/106939719502900302 Smith, 2004, In search of acquiescent response bias, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35, 50, 10.1177/0022022103260380 Smith, 2006, When elephants fight, the grass gets trampled: the GLOBE and Hofstede projects, Journal of International Business Studies, 37, 915, 10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400235 Smith, 1996, National culture and the values of organizational employees: a dimensional analysis across 43 nations, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27, 231, 10.1177/0022022196272006 Soudijn, 1990, Culture conceptualisations, 209 Spector, 1988, Development of the work locus of control scale, Journal of Occupational Psychology, 61, 335, 10.1111/j.2044-8325.1988.tb00470.x Spector, 2001, An international study of the psychometric properties of the Hofstede Values Survey Module 1994: a comparison of individual and country/province level results, Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50, 269, 10.1111/1464-0597.00058 Stedham, 2004, Measuring national culture: does gender matter?, Women in Management Review, 19, 233, 10.1108/09649420410545953 Steel, 2002, Personality and happiness: a national-level analysis, Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 83, 767, 10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.767 Taras, 2008 Taras, 2005, Cross-cultural differences and dynamics of cultures over time: a meta-analysis of Hofstede's taxonomy Taras, 2006, Culture as a consequence: a multilevel multivariate meta-analysis of the effects of individual and country characteristics on work-related cultural values Taras, 2006, Improving cultural indices and rankings based on a meta-analysis of Hofstede's taxonomy Thorndike, 1939, On the fallacy of imputing the correlations found for groups to the individuals or smaller groups composing them, American Journal of Psychology, 52, 122, 10.2307/1416673 Triandis, 1994, vol. 4, 103 Triandis, 1994 Triandis, 1986, The measurement of the ethic aspects of individualism and collectivism across cultures, Australian Journal of Psychology, 38, 257, 10.1080/00049538608259013 Triandis, 1998, Scenarios for the measurement of collectivism and individualism, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29, 275, 10.1177/0022022198292001 Triandis, 1993, An etic–emic analysis of individualism and collectivism, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24, 366, 10.1177/0022022193243006 Trompenaars, 1993 Trubisky, 1991, The influence of individualism–collectivism and self-monitoring on conflict styles, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15, 65, 10.1016/0147-1767(91)90074-Q van de Vijver, 1997, Methods and data analysis of comparative research, Vol. 1, 406 van de Vijver, 2002, Structural equivalence in multilevel research, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33, 141, 10.1177/0022022102033002002 Vandello, 1999, Patterns of individualism and collectivism across the United States, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 279, 10.1037/0022-3514.77.2.279 Wagner, 1986, Individualism–collectivism: concept and measure, Group & Organization Studies, 11, 280, 10.1177/105960118601100309