Workplace happiness, well-being and their relationship with psychological capital: A study of Hungarian Teachers
Tóm tắt
Happiness and well-being at work has been an increasingly popular topic in the past two decades in academic and business contexts alike, along with positive psychology, through which organizations aim to find out, what makes working environments engaging and motivating. Few studies have focused on education, however, especially from a solution-focused perspective, even though it is a sector where employees are highly exposed to stress and burnout. Accordingly, the purpose of his study was to investigate the relationship between teachers’ psychological resources through the concept of psychological capital, workplace well-being and perceived workplace happiness. We used both qualitative (open-ended question) and quantitative (test battery) methods to examine the relation between the various factors. Content analysis of responses in our qualitative research suggests that the main pillars of teachers’ workplace happiness were realization of goals, feedback, finding meaning in work and social relationships. The results of our quantitative study indicated that workplace well-being and happiness correlated with inner psychological resources, hope and optimism in particular. We conclude that the future focus on employee well-being must take into account positive contributing factors and adopt a positively-oriented approach to promoting well-being. Suggestions for practical implications are also discussed.
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Acton, R., & Glasgow, P. (2015). Teacher wellbeing in neoliberal contexts: A review of the literature. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 40(8).
Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Burns, J., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., Nyende, P., Ashton-James, C. E., & Norton, M. I. (2013a). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological universal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031578.
Argyle, M. (1987). The psychology of happiness. New York: Methuen.
Avanzi, L., Cortini, M., & Crocetti, E. (2012). When age matters: The role of teacher aging on job identity and organizational citizenship behaviours. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 25(3–4), 179–210.
Avey, J. B., Reichard, R. J., Luthans, F., & Mhatre, K. H. (2011). Meta-analysis of the impact of positive psychological capital on employee attitudes, behaviors, and performance. Human Resource Development Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.20070.
Aknin, L. B., Dunn, E. W., Whillans, A. V., Grant, A. M., & Norton, M. I. (2013b). Making a Difference Matters: Impact Unlocks the Emotional Benefits of Prosocial Spending. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 88, 90-95.
Aguinis, H., Gottfredson, R. K., & Joo, H. (2012). Delivering effective performance feedback: The strengths-based approach. Business Horizons, 55(2), 105—111.
Bakker, A. B. (2005). Flow among music teachers and their students: The crossover of peak experiences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 26–44.
Baumann, N. (2012). Autotelic personality. In S. Engeser (Ed.), Advances in flow research (pp. 165–186). New York: Springer.
Benevene, P., Ittan, M. M., & Cortini, M. (2018). Self-esteem and happiness as predictors of school teachers' health: The mediating role of job satisfaction. Frontiers in Psychology, 9.
Bhatnagar, J., & Biswas, S. (2010). Predictors and outcomes of employee engagement: Implications of the resource-based view perspective. The Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 46(2), 273–288.
Boehm, J. K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Does happiness promote career success? Journal of Career Assessment, 16, 101–116.
Bowling, N. A., Eschleman, K. J., & Wang, Q. (2010). A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317909X478557.
Bricheno, P., Brown, S., & Lubansky, R. (2009). Teacher wellbeing: A review of the evidence. London: Teacher Support Network.
Briner, R., & Dewberry, C. (2007). Staff wellbeing is key to school success. A research study into the links between staff wellbeing and school performance. London: Worklife Support.
Brouwers, A., & Tomic, W. (1999). Teacher burnout, perceived self-efficacy in classroom management, and student disruptive behaviour in second-ary education. Curriculum and Teaching, 14(2), 7–26.
Brun, J. P., & Dugas, N. (2008). An analysis of employee recognition: Perspectives on human resources practices. The International Journal of Human Resource Management. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585190801953723.
Bérdi, M., & Köteles, F. (2010). Az optimizmus mérése: az Életszemlélet Teszt átdolgozott változatának (LOT-R) pszichometriai jellemzõi hazai mintán. Magyar Pszichológiai Szemle, 65(2), 273-294.
Calabrese, R., Hester, M., Friesen, S., & Burkhalter, K. (2010). Using appreciative inquiry to create a sustainable rural school district and community. International Journal of Educational Management. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513541011031592.
Cameron, K. S., Dutton, J. E., & Quinn, R. E. (Eds.). (2003). Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Chan, D. W. (2009). Orientations to happiness and subjective well-being among chinese prospective and in-service teachers in Hong Kong. Educational Psychology, 29(2), 139–151.
Chan, D. W. (2010). Gratitude, gratitude intervention and subjective well-being among chinese school teachers in Hong Kong. Educational Psychology, 30(2), 139–153.
Chida, Y., & Steptoe, A. (2008). Positive psychological well-being and mortality: A quantitative review of prospective observational studies. Psychosomatic Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e31818105ba.
Connolly, J. J., & Viswesvaran, C. (2000). The role of affectivity in job satisfaction: A metaanalysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 265–281.
Crede, M., Chernyshenko, O. S., Stark, S., Dalal, R. S., & Bashshur, M. R. (2007). Job satisfaction as mediator: An assessment of job satisfaction's position within the nomological network. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317906X136180.
Crosby, F. (1982). Relative deprivation and working women. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row.
Culbertson, S. S., Fullagar, C. J., & Mills, M. J. (2010). Feeling good and doing great: The relationship between psychological capital and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020720.
Dagenais-Desmarais, V., & Savoie, A. (2011). What is psychological well-being, really? A grassroots approach from the organizational sciences. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13, 659–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011-9285-3.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-deternination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
Deutsch, S., Fejes, E., Kun, Á., & Medvés, D. (2015). A jóllétet meghatározó tényezők vizsgálata egészségügyi szakdolgozók körében. Alkalmazott Psuichológia, 15(2), 49–71.
Dolan, P., Peasgood, T., & White, M. P. (2008). Do we really know what makes us happy? A review of the economic literature on the factors associated with subjective wellbeing. Journal of Economic Psychology, 29, 94–122.
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132.
Emmons, R. A. (1986). Personal strivings: An approach to personality and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1058–1068.
Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 377–389.
Fisher, C. D. (2010). Happiness at work. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(4), 384–412.
Fordyce, M. W. (1983). A program to increase happiness: Further studies. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 30, 483–498.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Joiner, T. (2002). Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward emotional well-being. Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00431.
Freedman, J. (1978). Happy people: What happiness is, who has it, and why. New York: Hartcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Friedman, I. A., & Kass, E. (2002). Teacher self-efficacy: A classroom-organization conceptualization. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 675–686.
Froh, J. J., Sefick, W. J., & Emmons, R. A. (2008). Counting blessings in early adolescents: An experimental study of gratitude and subjective well-being. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 213–233.
George, J. M. (1991). State or trait: Effects of positive mood on prosocial behaviors at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 299–307.
Green, L. S., Osdes, L. G., & Grant, A. M. (2006). Cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused life coaching: Enhancing goal striving, well-being, and hope. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(3), 142–149.
Greller, M. M., Parsons, C. K., & Mitchell, D. R. D. (1992). Additive effects and beyond: Occupational stressors and social buffers in a police organization. In J. C. Quick, L. R. Murphy, & J. J. Hurrell Jr. (Eds.), Stress and well-being at work: Assessments and interventions for occupational mental health (pp. 33–47). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2016.1199294.
Herman, A., Gottfredson, R. K., & Joo, H. (2012). Delivering effective performance feedback: The strengths-based approach. Business Horizons, 55(2), 105–111.
Howell, R. T., Kern, M. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2007). Health benefits: Meta-analytically determining the impact of wellbeing on objective health outcomes. Health Psychology Review. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437190701492486.
Hoy, W. K., & Tarter, C. J. (2011). Positive psychology and educational administration: An optimistic research agenda. Educational Administration Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X10396930.
Holecz, A., & Molnár, S. (2014). Pedagógusok pozitív pszichológiai tükörben: a jóllétet erősítő tényezők jellemzői a pályán. Iskolakultúra, 24(10), 3-14.
Iverson, R. D., Olekalns, M., & Erwin, P. J. (1998). Affectivity, organizational stressors, and absenteeism: A causal model of burnout and its consequences. Journal of Vocational Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1996.1556.
Jayawickreme, E., Forgeard, M., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2012). The engine of well-being. Review of General Psychology, 16(4), 327–342.
Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308325693.
Kahn, J., Hessling, R., & Russell, D. (2003). Social support, health, and well-being among the elderly: What is the role of negative affectivity? Personality and Individual Differences. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00135-6.
Kahneman, D., Krueger, A. B., Schkade, D. A., Schwarz, N., & Stone, A. A. (2004). A survey method for characterizing daily life experience: The day reconstruction method. Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1103572.
Kinnunen, U., Parkatti, T., & Rasku, A. (1994). Occupational well-being among aging teachers in Finland. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 38(3–4), 315–332.
Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284.
Kubzansky, L. D., Sparrow, D., Vokonas, P., & Kawachi, I. (2001). Is the glass half empty or half full? A prospective study of optimism and coronary heart disease in the normative aging study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 63, 910–916.
Kun, Á., Gerákné Krasz, K., & Balogh, P. (2017). Development of the work-related well-being questionnaire based on Seligman’s PERMA model. Periodica Polytechnica Social and Management Sciences. https://doi.org/10.3311/PPso.9326.
Kyriacou, C. (2001). Teacher stress: Directions for future research. Educational Review. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131910120033628.
LaMontagne, A. D., Keegel, T., Louie, A. M., Ostry, A., & Landsbergis, P. A. (2007). A systematic review of the job-stress intervention evaluation literature, 1990–2005. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 13(3), 268–280.
LaMontagne, A. D., Martin, A. K., Page, M., Reavley, N. J., Noblet, A. J., Milner, A. J., Keegel, T., & Smith, P. M. (2014). Workplace mental health: Developing an integrated intervention approach. BMC Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-131.
Lavy, S., & Bocker, S. (2018). A path to teacher happiness? A sense of meaning affects teacher-student relationships, which affect job satisfaction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 19(5), 1485–1503.
Layous, K., Chancellor, J., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2014). Positive activities as protective factors against mental health conditions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 123(1), 3–12.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705–717.
Luthans, F. (2002a). The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 695–706.
Luthans, F. (2002b). Positive organizational behavior: Developing and managing psychological strengths. Academy of Management Executive, 16, 57–72.
Luthans, F., & Youssef, C. M. (2004). Human, social, and now positive psychological capital management. Organizational Dynamics, 33, 143–160.
Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., Norman, S., & Combs, G. (2006). Psychological capital development: Toward a micro-intervention. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27, 387–393.
Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2007). Psychological capital. New York: Oxford University Press.
Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., & Patera, J. L. (2008). Experimental analysis of a web-based intervention to develop positive psychological capital. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 7, 209–221.
Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137–155.
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005a). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855.
Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005b). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9, 111–131.
Macdonald, D. (1999). Teacher attrition: A review of literature. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15, 835–848.
Meyers, M. C., von Woerkom, M., & Bakker, A. B. (2013). The added value of the positive: A literature review of positive psychology interventions in organizations. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.694689.
Mitchell, R. E., Billings, A. G., & Moos, R. H. (1982). Social support and well-being: Implications for prevention programs. Journal of Primary Prevention, 3, 77–97.
Martos, T., Lakatos, C., & Tóth-Vajna, R. (2014). A Remény Skála magyar változatának (AHS-H) pszichometriai jellemzői. Mentálhigiéné és Pszichoszomatika, 15, 187–202.
Mazzucchelli, T. G., Kane, R. T., & Rees, C. S. (2010). Behavioral activation interventions for well-being: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Positive Psychology 5(2), 105-121.
Nielsen, K., Nielsen, M. B., Ogbonnaya, C., Känsälä, M., Saari, E., & Isaksson, K. (2017). Workplace resources to improve both employee well-being and performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Work & Stress. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2017.1304463.
Page, K. M., & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2009). The ‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘how’ of employee well-being: A new model. Social Indicators Research, 90(3), 441–458.
Page, K. M., & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2012). From nonmalfeasance to beneficence: Key criteria, approaches, and ethical issues relating to positive employee health and well-being. In N. P. Reilly, M. J. Sirgy, & C. A. Gorman (Eds.), Work and quality of life: Ethical practices in organizations (pp. 463–489). Dordrecht: Springer.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A classification and handbook. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Pham, L. B., & Taylor, S. E. (1999). From thought to action: Effects of process- versus outcome-based mental simulations on performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 250–260.
Pratt, M. G., & Ashforth, B. E. (2003). Fostering meaningfulness in working and at work. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline (pp. 309–327). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Roberts, L. M., Spreitzer, G., Dutton, J., Quinn, R., Heaphy, E., & Barker, B. (2005). How to play to your strengths. Harvard Business Review, 83, 74–80.
Roffey, S. (2012). Pupil wellbeing: Teacher wellbeing. Two sides of the same coin? Educational and Child Psychology, 29(4), 8–17.
Ross, S. W., Romer, N., & Horner, R. H. (2012). Teacher well-being and the implementation of schoolwide positive behavior interventions and supports. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300711413820.
Roysamb, E., Tambs, K., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., Neale, M. C., & Harris, J. R. (2003). Happiness and health: Environmental and genetic contributions to the relationship between subjective well-being, perceived health, and somatic illness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(6), 1136–1146.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. The American Psychologist, 10, 1037110003–066X.55.1.68.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081.
Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719.
Ramsey, G. (2000). Quality matters. Revitalising teaching: Critical times, critical choices. Sydney: New South Wales Department of Education and Training. Retrieved 12 January 2015, from http://www.det.nsw.edu.au/teachrev/report/
Sansone, C., Sachau, D. A., & Weir, C. (1989). Effects of instruction on intrinsic interest: The importance of context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 819–829.
Segerstrom, S. C. (2007). Stress, energy, and immunity: An ecological view. Current Directions in Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00522.x.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfilment. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York: Free Press.
Seligman, M. E. P., & Schulman, P. (1986). Explanatory style as a predictor of productivity and quitting among life insurance agents. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 832–838.
Seligman, M. E. P., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Thornton, N., & Thornton, K. M. (1990). Explanatory style as a mechanism of disappointing athletic performance. Psychological Science, 1, 143–146.
Seligman, M. E. P., Reivich, K., Jaycox, L., & Gillham, J. (1995). The optimistic child: A proven program to safe-guard children against depression and build lifelong resilience. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410–421.
Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006). How to increase and sustain positive emotion: The effects of expressing gratitude and visualizing best possible selves. Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 73–82.
Sherlock-Storey, M., Moss, M., & Timson, S. (2013). Brief coaching for resilience during organisational change – An exploratory study. The Coaching Psychologist, 9(1), 19–26.
Sin, N. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: A practice-friendly meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20593.
Singh, K., & Billingsley, B. (1996). Intent to stay in teaching: Teachers of students with emotional disorders versus other special educators. Remedial and Special Education, 17(1), 37–47.
Smith, C. P. (2000). Content analysis and narrative analysis. In H. T. Reiss & C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (pp. 313–335). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Langelle, C., & Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 570–585.
Sonnentag, S. (1996). Work group factors and individual well-being. In M. A. West (Ed.), The handbook of work group psychology (pp. 346–367). Chichester: Wiley.
Spilt, J. L., Koomen, H. M. Y., & Thijs, J. T. (2011). Teacher wellbeing: The importance of teacher–student relationships. Educational Psychology Review, 23, 457–477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9170-y.
Smith, B. V., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194-200.
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright & M. Johnston (Eds.), Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37).
Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A re-evaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063-1078.
Stronge, J. H., Tucker, P.D., & Hindman, J. L. (2004). Handbook for qualities of effective teachers. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA, USA
Sheldon, K. M., Kasser, T., Smith, K., & Share, T., (2002). Personal goals and psychological growth: Testing an intervention to enhance goal attainment and personality integration. Journal of Personality, 70(1), 5-31.
Tadić, M., Bakker, A. B., & Oerlemans, W. G. M. (2013). Work happiness among teachers: A day reconstruction study on the role of self-concordance. Journal of School Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2013.07.002.
Trent, L. M. Y. (1997). Enhancement of the school climate by reducing teacher burnout: Using an invitational approach. Journal of Invitational Theory and Practice, 4(2), 103–114.
Venkataramani, V., Labianca, G. (. J.)., & Grosser, T. (2013). Positive and negative workplace relationships, social satisfaction, and organizational attachment. Journal of Applied Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034090.
Williams, S., & Shiaw, W. T. (1999). Mood and organizational citizenship behavior: The effects of positive affect on employee organizational citizenship behavior intentions. Journal of Psychology, 133, 656–668.
Winefield, A. H., & Tiggemann, M. (1990). Employment status and psychological well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.75.4.455.
Wood, A., Froh, J., & Geraghty, A. (2010). Gratitude and well-being: A review and theoretical integration. Clinical Psychology Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.005.
Wrzesniewski, A., & Dutton, J. E. (2001). Crafting a job: Revisioning employees as active crafters of their work. Academy of Management Review, 26(2), 179–201.
Wood, A. M., & Joseph, S. (2010). The absence of positive psychological (eudemonic) wellbeing as a risk factor for depression: A ten year cohort study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 122, 213–217.
Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2007). The role of personal resources in the job demands resources model. International Journal of Stress Management. https://doi.org/10.1037/1072-5245.14.2.121.