What we would (but shouldn't) do for those we love: Universalism versus partiality in responding to others' moral transgressions

Alicke, 2013, Hypocrisy: What counts?, Philosophical Psychology, 26, 673, 10.1080/09515089.2012.677397 Archard, 1995, Moral partiality, Midwest Studies In Philosophy, 20, 129, 10.1111/j.1475-4975.1995.tb00308.x Aristotle. (2009). The Nicomachean Ethics (L. Brown, Ed.; D. Ross, Trans.). Oxford University Press. Barbosa, 2017, It’s not right but it’s permitted: Wording effects in moral judgement, Judgment and Decision making, 12, 308, 10.1017/S1930297500005908 Baron, 1991, Impartiality and friendship, Ethics, 101, 836, 10.1086/293346 Bartel, 2019, Hypocrisy as either deception or Akrasia, The Philosophical Forum, 50, 269, 10.1111/phil.12220 Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., & Walke, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of statistical software, 67(1), 1–48. Doi: 10.18637/jss.v067.i01. Batson, 1995, Immorality from empathy-induced altruism: When compassion and justice conflict, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 1042, 10.1037/0022-3514.68.6.1042 Batson, 1999, Moral hypocrisy: Appearing moral to oneself without being so, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 525, 10.1037/0022-3514.77.3.525 Berg, 2021, How relationships bias moral reasoning: Neural and self-report evidence, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 95, 104156, 10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104156 Blake, 2011, “I had so much it didn’t seem fair”: Eight-year-olds reject two forms of inequity, Cognition, 120, 215, 10.1016/j.cognition.2011.04.006 Bostyn, 2018, Of mice, men, and trolleys: Hypothetical judgment versus real-life behavior in trolley-style moral dilemmas, Psychological Science, 29, 1084, 10.1177/0956797617752640 Cipolletti, 2016, The moral foreign-language effect, Philosophical Psychology, 29, 23, 10.1080/09515089.2014.993063 Confucius, 2005 Csikszentmihalyi, 2020, Confucius Dawes, 2007, Egalitarian motives in humans, Nature, 446, 794, 10.1038/nature05651 Dunning, 2007, Self-image motives and consumer behavior: How sacrosanct self-beliefs sway preferences in the marketplace, Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17, 237, 10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70033-5 Elenbaas, 2016, Rectifying social inequalities in a resource allocation task, Cognition, 155, 176, 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.07.002 Everett, 2018, The costs of being consequentialist: Social inference from instrumental harm and impartial beneficence, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 79, 200, 10.1016/j.jesp.2018.07.004 Fehr, 2003, The nature of human altruism, Nature, 425, 785, 10.1038/nature02043 FeldmanHall, 2012, What we say and what we do: The relationship between real and hypothetical moral choices, Cognition, 123, 434, 10.1016/j.cognition.2012.02.001 Festinger, 1957 Francis, 2016, Virtual morality: Transitioning from moral judgment to moral action?, PLoS One, 11, 10.1371/journal.pone.0164374 Greene, 2009, Pushing moral buttons: The interaction between personal force and intention in moral judgment, Cognition, 111, 364, 10.1016/j.cognition.2009.02.001 Greene, 2001, An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment, Science, 293, 2105, 10.1126/science.1062872 Gutsell, 2012, Intergroup differences in the sharing of emotive states: Neural evidence of an empathy gap, Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7, 596, 10.1093/scan/nsr035 Haidt, 2001, The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment, Psychological Review, 108, 814, 10.1037/0033-295X.108.4.814 Haidt, 2007, When morality opposes justice: Conservatives have moral intuitions that liberals may not recognize, Social Justice Research, 20, 98, 10.1007/s11211-007-0034-z Hester, 2020, The moral psychology of Raceless, Genderless Strangers, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 174569161988584 Higgins, 1987, Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect, Psychological Review, 54, 319, 10.1037/0033-295X.94.3.319 Hofmann, 2014, Morality in everyday life, Science, 345, 1340, 10.1126/science.1251560 Hughes, 2017, In a moral dilemma, choose the one you love: Impartial actors are seen as less moral than partial ones, British Journal of Social Psychology, 56, 561, 10.1111/bjso.12199 Johnson, 2003, Do defaults save lives?, Science, 302, 1338, 10.1126/science.1091721 Jordan, 2011, Striving for the moral self: The effects of recalling past moral actions on future moral behavior, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 701, 10.1177/0146167211400208 Jordan, 2017, Why do we hate hypocrites? Evidence for a theory of false signaling, Psychological Science, 28, 356, 10.1177/0956797616685771 Kant, 1785 Killen, 1998, Adolescents’ and Young Adults’ evaluations of helping and sacrificing for others, Journal of Research on Adolescence, 8, 355, 10.1207/s15327795jra0803_4 King James Bible. (2017). Cambridge University Press. Kraut, 2018, Aristotle’s ethics Kurzban, 2012, Hamilton vs. Kant: Pitting adaptations for altruism against adaptations for moral judgment, Evolution and Human Behavior, 33, 323, 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.11.002 Laurent, 2019, What makes hypocrisy? Folk definitions, attitude/behavior combinations, attitude strength, and private/public distinctions, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 41, 104, 10.1080/01973533.2018.1556160 Lönnqvist, 2014, Moral hypocrisy: Impression management or self-deception?, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 55, 53, 10.1016/j.jesp.2014.06.004 Lord, 2016, Justifying partiality, Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 19, 569, 10.1007/s10677-015-9675-4 Marshall, 2020, Developing judgments about peers’ obligation to intervene, Cognition, 201, 104215, 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104215 Mazar, 2008, The dishonesty of honest people: A theory of self-concept maintenance, Journal of Marketing Research, 45, 633, 10.1509/jmkr.45.6.633 McManus, 2020, What we owe to family: The impact of special obligations on moral judgment, Psychological Science, 0956797619900321 Mill, 1895 Mills, 2008, Children’s developing notions of (im)partiality, Cognition, 107, 528, 10.1016/j.cognition.2007.11.003 Monin, 2009, The dynamic moral self: A social psychological perspective Nucci, 1978, Social interactions and the development of social concepts in preschool children, Child Development, 49, 400, 10.2307/1128704 Olson, 2011, Children’s responses to group-based inequalities: Perpetuation and rectification, Social Cognition, 29, 270, 10.1521/soco.2011.29.3.270 Olson, 2008, Foundations of cooperation in young children, Cognition, 108, 222, 10.1016/j.cognition.2007.12.003 Patil, 2014, Affective basis of judgment-behavior discrepancy in virtual experiences of moral dilemmas, Social Neuroscience, 9, 94, 10.1080/17470919.2013.870091 Pletti, 2017, It’s immoral, but I’d do it! Psychopathy traits affect decision-making in sacrificial dilemmas and in everyday moral situations, British Journal of Psychology, 108, 351, 10.1111/bjop.12205 Rizzo, 2018, Young children’s inclusion decisions in moral and social–conventional group norm contexts, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 165, 19, 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.05.006 Rosenbaum, 2009, Patient teenagers? A comparison of the sexual behavior of virginity pledgers and matched nonpledgers, Pediatrics, 123, e110, 10.1542/peds.2008-0407 Scheffler, 2010, Partiality and impartiality, Oxford University Press. Schein, 2020, The importance of context in moral judgments, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15, 207, 10.1177/1745691620904083 Shaw, 2011, Children discard a resource to avoid inequity, Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 141, 382, 10.1037/a0025907 Siegel, 2017, Inferences about moral character moderate the impact of consequences on blame and praise, Cognition, 167, 201, 10.1016/j.cognition.2017.05.004 Siegel, 2018, Beliefs about bad people are volatile, Nature Human Behaviour, 2, 750, 10.1038/s41562-018-0425-1 Singer, 1972, Famine, affluence, and morality, Philosophy & Public Affairs, 1, 229 Smetana, 2013, Young Children’s moral and social-conventional understanding Smetana, 1981, Preschool Children’s conceptions of moral and social rules, Child Development, 52, 1333, 10.2307/1129527 Sood, 2005, On self-referencing differences in judgment and choice, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 98, 144, 10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.05.005 Tarrant, 2009, Social categorization and empathy for outgroup members, British Journal of Social Psychology, 48, 427, 10.1348/014466608X373589 Tassy, 2013, High levels of psychopathic traits alters moral choice but not moral judgment, Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00229 Tassy, 2012, Disrupting the right prefrontal cortex alters moral judgement, Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7, 282, 10.1093/scan/nsr008 Tassy, 2013, Discrepancies between judgment and choice of action in moral dilemmas, Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00250 Teper, 2011, Are we more moral than we think?: Exploring the role of affect in moral behavior and moral forecasting, Psychological Science, 22, 553, 10.1177/0956797611402513 Uhlmann, 2013, When it takes a bad person to do the right thing, Cognition, 126, 326, 10.1016/j.cognition.2012.10.005 Waytz, 2013, The whistleblower’s dilemma and the fairness–loyalty tradeoff, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 1027, 10.1016/j.jesp.2013.07.002 Weidman, 2020, Punish or protect? How close relationships shape responses to moral violations, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 46, 693, 10.1177/0146167219873485 Williams, 1981 Wolf, 1992, Morality and partiality, Philosophical Perspectives, 6, 243, 10.2307/2214247 Yu, 2019, Modeling morality in 3-D: Decision-making, judgment, and inference, Topics in Cognitive Science, 11, 409, 10.1111/tops.12382