WICS: A Model of Positive Educational Leadership Comprising Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized

Adelson, B. (1984). When novices surpass experts: The difficulty of a task may increase with expertise. J. Exp. Psychol.: Learn. Memory Cogn. 10(3): 483–495. Amabile, T. M. (1983). The Social Psychology of Creativity, Springer, New York. Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in Context, Westview, Boulder, CO. Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A. T., and Sternberg, R. J. (2004a). Leadership: Past, present, and future. In Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A. T., and Sternberg, R. J. (eds.), The Nature of Leadership, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 3–15. Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A. T., and Sternberg, R. J. (eds.). (2004b). The Nature of Leadership, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Ayman, R. (2004). Situational and contingency approaches to leadership. In Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A. T., and Sternberg, R. J. (eds.), The Nature of Leadership, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 148–170. Baehr, M. E. (1992). Predicting Success in Higher Level Positions: A Guide to the System for Testing and Evaluation of Potential, Quorum, New York. Bales, R. F. (1951). Interaction process analysis: A method for the study of small groups. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Baltes, P. B., Smith, J., and Staudinger, U. M. (1992). Wisdom and successful aging. In Sonderegger, T. B. (ed.), Psychology and Aging, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE, pp. 123–167. Baltes, P. B., and Staudinger, U. M. (1993). The search for a psychology of wisdom. Curr. Direct. Psychol. Sci. 2: 75–80. Baltes, P. B., and Staudinger, U. M. (2000). Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. Am. Psychol. 55: 122–135. Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., Maercker, A., and Smith, J. (1995). People nominated as wise: A comparative study of wisdom-related knowledge. Psychol. Aging 10: 155–166. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control, Freeman, New York. Barnes, M. L., and Sternberg, R. J. (1989). Social intelligence and decoding of nonverbal cues. Intelligence 13: 263–287. Barron, F., and Harrington, D. M. (1981). Creativity, intelligence, and personality. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 32: 439–476. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations, Free Press, New York. Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational Leadership: Industrial, Military, and Educational Impact, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Bass, B. M. (2002). Cognitive, social, and emotional intelligence of transformational leaders. In Riggio, R. E., Murphy, S. E., and Pirozzolo, F. J. (eds.), Multiple Intelligences and Leadership, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 105–118. Bass, B. M., and Avolio, B. J. (eds.). (1994). Improving Organizational Effectiveness Through Transformational Leadership, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Bass, B. M., and Avolio, B. J. (1995). MLQ Multifoactor Leadership Questionnaire for Research: Premission Set, Mindgarden, Redwood City, CA. Bass, B. M., Avolio, B. J., and Atwater, L. (1996). The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women. Int. Rev. Appl. Psychol. 45: 5–34. Bateson, G. (1979). Mind and Nature, Wildwood House, London. Bird, C. (1940). Social Psychology, Appleton-Century, New York. Blake, R. R., and Mouton, J. S. (1964). The Managerial Grid, Gulf Publishing Group, Houston. Boring, E. G. (1923, June 6). Intelligence as the tests test it. New Republic, 35–37. Bowers, K. S., Regehr, G., Balthazard, C., and Parker, K. (1990). Intuition in the context of discovery. Cogn. Psychol. 22: 72–109. Bransford, J. D., and Stein, B. (1984). The IDEAL Problem Solver, Freeman, New York. Brody, N. (2003a). Construct validation of the Sternberg Triarchic abilities test: Comment and reanalysis. Intelligence 31(4): 319–329. Brody, N. (2003b). What Sternberg should have concluded. Intelligence 31(4): 339–342. Brown, A. L., and Ferrara, R. A. (1985). Diagnosing zones of proximal development. In Wertsch, J. V. (ed.). Culture, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, pp. 273–305. Budoff, M. (1968). Learning potential as a supplementary assessment procedure. In Hellmuth, J. (ed.), Learning Disorders, Vol. 3, Special Child, Seattle, WA, pp. 295–343. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership, Harper & Row, New York. Campbell, D. T. (1960). Blind variation and selective retention in creative thought and other knowledge processes. Psychol. Rev. 67: 380–400. Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies, Cambridge University Press, New York. Caruso, D. R., Mayer, J. D., and Salovey, P. (2002). Emotional intelligence and emotional leadership. In Riggio, R. E., Murphy, S. E., and Pirozzolo, F. J. (eds.), Multiple Intelligences and Leadership, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 55–74. Cattell, R. B. (1971). Abilities: Their Structure, Growth and Action, Houghton Mifflin, Boston. Cattell, R. B., and Cattell, H. E. P. (1973). Measuring Intelligence with the Culture Fair Tests, Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, Champaign, IL. Ceci, S. J. (1996). On Intelligence, revised and expanded edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Clement, J. (1989). Learning via model construction and criticism: Protocol evidence on sources of creativity in science. In Glover, G., Ronning, R., and Reynolds, C. (eds.), Handbook of Creativity, Plenum, New York, pp. 341–381. Crutchfield, R. (1962). Conformity and creative thinking. In Gruber, H., Terrell, G., and Wertheimer, M. (eds.), Contemporary Approaches to Creative Thinking, Atherton Press, New York, pp. 120–140. Cziko, G. A. (1998). From Blind to creative: In defense of Donald Campbell’ s selectionist theory of human creativity. J. Creat. Behav. 32: 192–208. Davidson, J. E., and Sternberg, R. J. (1984). The role of insight in intellectual giftedness. Gifted Child Quart. 28: 58–64. Day, J. D., Engelhardt, J. L., Maxwell, S. E., and Bolig, E. E. (1997). Comparison of static and dynamic assessment procedures and their relation to independent performance. J. Educ. Psychol. 89(2): 358–368. Dellas, M., and Gaier, E. L. (1970). Identification of creativity: The individual. Psychol. Bull. 73: 55–73. Dewey, J. (1933). How We Think, Heath, Boston. Ericsson, K. A. (ed.) (1996). The Road to Excellence, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Feuerstein, R. (1979). The Dynamic Assessment of Retarded Performers: The Learning Potential Assessment Device Theory, Instruments, and Techniques, University Park Press, Baltimore, MD. Fiedler, F. E. (1978). The contingency model and the dynamics of the leadership process. In Bekowitz, L. (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 11, Academic Press, New York, pp. 59–112. Fiedler, F. E. (2002). The curious role of cognitive resources in leadership. In Riggio, R. E., Murphy, S. E., and Pirozzolo, F. J. (eds.), Multiple Intelligences and Leadership, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 91–104. Fiedler, F. E., and Link, T. G. (1994). Leader intelligence, interpersonal stress, and task performance. In Sternberg, R. J., and Wagner, R. K. (eds.), Mind in Context: Interactionist Perspectives on Human Intelligence, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 152–167. Findlay, C. S., and Lumsden, C. J. (1988). The creative mind: Toward an evolutionary theory of discovery and invention. J. Soc. Biol. Struc. 11: 3–55. Finke, R. (1990). Creative Imagery: Discoveries and Inventions in Visualization, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. Finke, R. (1995). A creative insight and preinventive forms. In Sternberg, R. J. and Davidson, J. E. (eds.), The Nature of Insight, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 255–280. Frensch, P. A., and Sternberg, R. J. (1989). Expertise and intelligent thinking: When is it worse to know better? In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.), Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence, Vol. 5, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 157–188. Garcia, J., and Koelling, R. A. (1966). The relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychon. Sci. 4: 123–124. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Basic Books, New York. Gardner, H. (1991). The Unschooled Mind, Basic Books, New York. Gardner, H. (1993a). Creating Minds, Basic Books, New York. Gardner, H. (1993b). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice, Basic Books, New York. Gardner, H. (1994). The creator’ s patterns. In Feldman, D. H., Csikszentmihalyi, M., and Gardner, H. (eds.), Changing the World: A Framework for the Study of Creativity, Praeger, Westport, CT, pp. 69–84. Gardner, H. (1995). Leading Minds, Basic Books, New York. Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21{st Century}, Basic Books, New York. Gardner, H. (2004). Changing Minds: The Art and Science of Changing Our Own and Other People’ s Minds, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA. Gardner, H., Krechevsky, M., Sternberg, R. J., and Okagaki, L. (1994). Intelligence in context: Enhancing students’ practical intelligence for school. In McGilly, K. (ed.), Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practice, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 105–127. Getzels, J. W., and Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1976). The Creative Vision: Problem Finding in Art, Van Nostrand, Chicago. Glover, J. A. (1977). Risky shift and creativity. Soc. Behav. Person. 5(2): 317–320. Goethals, G. R., Sorenson, G. J., and Burns, J. M. (eds.). (2004), Encyclopedia of Leadership, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. Golann, S. E. (1962). The creativity motive. J. Person. 30: 588–600. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., and McKee, A. (2002). Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA. Gottfredson, L. S. (2003a). Discussion: On Sternberg’ s ‘Reply to Gottfredson’ . Intelligence 31(4): 415–424. Gottfredson, L. S. (2003b). Dissecting practical intelligence theory: Its claims and evidence. Intelligence 31(4): 343–397. Gough, H. G., and Woodworth, D. G. (1960). Stylistic variations among professional research scientists. J. Psychol. 49: 87–98. Grigorenko, E. L., Jarvin, L., and Sternberg, R. J. (2002). School-based tests of the triarchic theory of intelligence: Three settings, three samples, three syllabi. Contemporary Educ. Psychol. 27: 167–208. Grigorenko, E. L., and Sternberg, R. J. (1998). Dynamic testing. Psychol. Bull. 124: 75–111. Grigorenko, E. L., and Sternberg, R. J. (2001). Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence as predictors of self-reported adaptive functioning: A case study in Russia. Intelligence 29: 57–73. Gruber, H. E. (1981). Darwin on Man: A Psychological Study of Scientific Creativity, 2nd edn. (original work published 1974), University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Guilford, J. P. (1968). Intelligence has three facets. Science 160(3828): 615–620. Guthke, J. (1993). Current trends in theories and assessment of intelligence. In Hamers, J. H. M., Sijtsma, K., and Ruijssenaars, A. J. J. M. (eds.), Learning Potential Assessment, Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, pp. 13–20. Guyote, M. J., and Sternberg, R. J. (1981). A transitive-chain theory of syllogistic reasoning. Cogn. Psychol. 13: 461–525. Haywood, H. C., and Tzuriel, D. (1992). Epilogue: The status and future of interactive assessment. In Haywood, H. C., and Tzuriel, D. (eds.), Interactive Assessment, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 38–63. Hedlund, J., Forsythe, G. B., Horvath, J. A., Williams, W. M., Snook, S., and Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Identifying and assessing tacit knowledge: Understanding the practical intelligence of military leaders. Leadership Quart. 14: 117–140. Hersey, P., and Blanchard, K. H. (1969). Management of Organizational Behavior, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. House, R. J. (1971). A path–goal theory of leader effectiveness. Admin. Sci. Quart. 16: 321–339. House, R. J. (1996). Path–goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformed theory. Leadership Quart. 7: 323–352. Howe, M. J., Davidson, J. W., and Sloboda, J. A. (1998). Innate talents: Reality or myth? Behav. Brain Sci. 21: 399–442. Howells, L. T., and Becker, S. W. (1962). Seating arrangement and leadership emergence. J. Abnormal Social Psychol. 64: 148–150. Hunt, J. G. (2004). What is leadership? In Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A. T., and Sternberg, R. J. (eds.), The Nature of Leadership, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 19–47. “Intelligence and its measurement”: A symposium (1921). J. Educ. Psychol. 12: 123–147, 195–216, 271–275. Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability, Praeger/Greenwood, Westport, CT. Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1988). Freedom and constraint in creativity. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), The Nature of Creativity, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 202–219. Kaplan, C. A., and Simon, H. A. (1990). In search of insight. Cogn. Psychol. 22: 374–419. Koestler, A. (1964). The Act of Creation, Dell, New York. Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn., University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Langley, P., Simon, H. A., Bradshaw, G. L., and Zytkow, J. M. (1987). Scientific Discovery: Computational Explorations of the Creative Processes, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Leavitt, H. J. (1951). Some effects of certain communication patterns on group performance. J. Abnormal Soc. Psychol. 46: 38–50. Lewin, K., and Lippitt, R. (1938). An experimental approach to the study of autocracy and democracy: A preliminary note. Sociometry 1: 292–300. Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., and White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates. J. Soc. Psychol. 10: 271–301. Lidz, C. S. (Ed.) (1987). Dynamic assessment, The Guilford Press, New York. Lidz, C. S. (1991). Practitioner’ s Guide to Dynamic Assessment, Guilford Press, New York. Lubart, T. I., and Sternberg, R. J. (1995). An investment approach to creativity: Theory and data. In Smith, S. M., Ward, T. B., and Finke, R. A. (eds.), The Creative Cognition Approach, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. MacKinnon, D. W. (1962). The nature and nurture of creative talent. Am. Psychol. 17: 484–495. MacKinnon, D. W. (1965). Personality and the realization of creative potential. Am. Psychol. 20: 273–281. Mann, R. D. (1959). A review of the relationship between personality and performance in small groups. Psychol. Bull. 56: 241–270. Martindale, C. (1999). Biological bases of creativity. In Sternberg R. J. (ed.), Handbook of Creativity, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 137–152. Maslow, A. (1967). The creative attitude. In Mooney, R. L. and Rasik, T. A. (eds.), Explorations in Creativity, Harper & Row, New York, pp. 43–57. McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., and Lowell, E. L. (1953). The Achievement Motive, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., New York. McGregor, D. M. (1960). The Human Side of Enterprise, McGraw-Hill, New York. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to Authority, Harper & Row, New York. Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., and Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science 244: 933–938. Morrow, I. J., and Stern, M. (1990). Stars, adversaries, producers, and phantoms at work: A new leadership typology. In Clark, K. E., and Clark, M. B. (eds.), Measures of Leadership, Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC, pp. 419–440. Mumford, M. D., and Connelly, M. S. (1991). Leaders as creators: Leader performance and problem solving in ill-defined domains. Leadership Quart. 2: 289–316. Mumford, M. D., Scott, G. M., Gaddis, B., and Strange, J. M. (2002). Leading creative people: Orchestrating expertise and relationships. Leadership Quart. 13: 705–750. Ochse, R. (1990). Before the Gates of Excellence, Cambridge University Press, New York. Perkins, D. N. (1981). The Mind’ s Best Work, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Perkins, D. N. (1995). Insight in minds and genes. In Sternberg, R. J., and Davidson, J. E. (eds.), The Nature of Insight, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 495–534. Riggio, R. E., Murphy, S. E., and Pirozzolo, F. J. (2002), Multiple Intelligences and Leadership, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Roe, A. (1952). The Making of a Scientist, Dodd, Mead, New York. Rogers, C. R. (1954). Toward a theory of creativity. ETC: Rev. Gen. Semantics 11: 249–260. Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in Thinking. Cognitive Development in Social Context, Oxford University Press, New York, NY. Rubenson, D. L., and Runco, M. A. (1992). The psychoeconomic approach to creativity. New Ideas Psychol. 10: 131–147. Sashkin, M. (2004). Transformational leadership approaches: A review and synthesis. In Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A. T., and Sternberg, R. J. (eds.), The Nature of Leadership, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 171–196. Schmidt, F. L., and Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychol. Bull. 124: 262–274. Shartle, C. L. (1951). Studies of naval leadership. Part I. In Guetzkow, H. (ed.), Group, Leadership and Men, Carnegie Press, Pittsburgh, PA, pp. 119–133. Simonton, D. K. (1994). Greatness: Who Makes History and Why? Guilford, New York. Simonton, D. K. (1997). Creative productivity: A predictive and explanatory model of career trajectories and landmarks. Psychol. Rev. 104: 66–89. Simonton, D. K. (1998). Donald Campbell’ s model of the creative process: Creativity as blind variation and selective retention. J. Creative Behav. 32: 153–158. Sloman, S. A. (1996). The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychol. Bull. 119: 3–22. Sosik, J. J., and Megerian, L. E. (1999). Understanding leader emotional intelligence and performance: The role of self–other agreement on transformational leadership perceptions. Group Org. Manag. 24: 367–390. Spearman, C. (1904). ‘General intelligence,’ objectively determined and measured. Am. J. Psychol. 15(2): 201–293. Spearman, C. (1927). The Abilities of Man, Macmillan, London. Spreitzer, G. M., McCall, M. W. Jr., and Mahoney, J. D. (1997). Early identification of international executive potential. J. Appl. Psychol. 82: 6–29. Staudinger, U. M., and Baltes, P. M. (1996). Interactive minds: A facilitative setting for wisdom-related performance? J. Person. Soc. Psychol. 71: 746–762. Staudinger, U. M., Lopez, D. F., and Baltes, P. B. (1997). The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance: Intelligence, personality, and more? Person. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 23: 1200–1214. Staudinger, U. M., Smith, J., and Baltes, P. B. (1992). Wisdom-related knowledge in life review task: Age differences and the role of professional specialization. Psychol. Aging 7: 271–281. Sternberg, R. J. (1977). Intelligence, Information Processing, and Analogical Reasoning: The Componential Analysis of Human Abilities, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. Sternberg, R. J. (1980a). Representation and process in linear syllogistic reasoning. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 109: 119–159. Sternberg, R. J. (1980b). Sketch of a componential subtheory of human intelligence. Behav. Brain Sci. 3: 573–584. Sternberg, R. J. (1981). Intelligence and nonentrenchment. J. Educ. Psychol. 73: 1–16. Sternberg, R. J. (1982). Natural, unnatural, and supernatural concepts. Cogn. Psychol. 14: 451–488. Sternberg, R. J. (1983). Components of human intelligence. Cognition 15: 1–48. Sternberg, R. J. (1984). Toward a triarchic theory of human intelligence. Behav. Brain Sci. 7: 269–287. Sternberg, R. J. (1985a). Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence, Cambridge University Press, New York. Sternberg, R. J. (1985b). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. J. Person. Soc. Psychol. 49(3): 607–627. Sternberg, R. J. (1987a). Most vocabulary is learned from context. In McKeown, M. G., and Curtis, M. E. (eds.), The Nature of Vocabulary Acquisition, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 89–105. Sternberg, R. J. (1987b). The psychology of verbal comprehension. In Glaser, R. (ed.), Advances in Instructional Psychology, Vol. 3, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 97–151. Sternberg, R. J. (ed.). (1988). The Nature of Creativity: Contemporary Psychological Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, New York. Sternberg, R. J. (1990). Metaphors of Mind, Cambridge University Press, New York. Sternberg, R. J. (1993). Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test, Unpublished test. Sternberg, R. J. (1994). Answering questions and questioning answers. Phi Delta Kappan 76(2): 136–138. Sternberg, R. J. (1995). In Search of the Human Mind, Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Orlando, FL. Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Successful Intelligence, Plume, New York. Sternberg, R. J. (1998a). Abilities are forms of developing expertise. Educ. Res. 27: 11–20. Sternberg, R. J. (1998b). A balance theory of wisdom. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 2: 347–365. Sternberg, R. J. (ed.). (1998c). Handbook of Creativity, Cambridge University Press, New York. Sternberg, R. J. (1998d). Metacognition, abilities, and developing expertise: What makes an expert student? Instruct. Sci. 26: 127–140. Sternberg, R. J. (1999a). Intelligence as developing expertise. Contemporary Educ. Psychol. 24: 359–375. Sternberg, R. J. (1999b). A propulsion model of types of creative contributions. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 3: 83–100. Sternberg, R. J. (1999c). The theory of successful intelligence. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 3: 292–316. Sternberg, R. J. (ed.). (2000). Handbook of Intelligence, Cambridge University Press, New York. Sternberg, R. J. (2001). Why schools should teach for wisdom: The balance theory of wisdom in educational settings. Educ. Psychol. 36(4): 227–245. Sternberg, R. J. (2002). Smart people are not stupid, but they sure can be foolish: The imbalance theory of foolishness. In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.), Why Smart People Can be so Stupid, Yale University Press, New Haven, pp 232–242. Sternberg, R. J. (ed.). (2003a). The Anatomy of Impact: What has Made the Great Works of Psychology Great? American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 223–228. Sternberg, R. J. (ed.). (2003b). Psychologists Defying the Crowd: Stories of Those Who Battled the Establishment and Won, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Sternberg, R. J. (2003c). What is an expert student? Educ. Res. 32(8): 5–9. Sternberg, R. J. (2003d). WICS: A model for leadership in organizations. Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 2: 386–401. Sternberg, R. J. (2003e). WICS: A Theory of Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity, Synthesized, Cambridge University Press, New York. Sternberg, R. J. (2003f). WICS as a model of giftedness. High Ability Stud. 14: 109–137. Sternberg, R. J. (2004a). Culture and intelligence. Am. Psychol. 59: 325–338. Sternberg, R. J. (2004b). WICS: A model of educational leadership. Educ. Forum 68(2): 108–114. Sternberg, R. J., Castejón, J. L., Prieto, M. D., Hautamäki, J., and Grigorenko, E. L. (2001a). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Sternberg triarchic abilities test in three international samples: An empirical test of the triarchic theory of intelligence. Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 17(1): 1–16. Sternberg, R. J., and Clinkenbeard, P. R. (1995). The triarchic model applied to identifying, teaching, and assessing gifted children. Roeper Rev. 17(4): 255–260. Sternberg, R. J., and Detterman, D. K. (eds.). (1986). What is Intelligence? Ablex Publishing Corporation Norwood, NJ. Sternberg, R. J., Ferrari, M., Clinkenbeard, P. R., and Grigorenko, E. L. (1996). Identification, instruction, and assessment of gifted children: A construct validation of a triarchic model. Gifted Child Quart. 40(3): 129–137. Sternberg, R. J., Forsythe, G. B., Hedlund, J., Horvath, J., Snook, S., Williams, W. M., Wagner, R. K., and Grigorenko, E. L. (2000). Practical Intelligence in Everyday Life, Cambridge University Press, New York. Sternberg, R. J., and Gardner, M. K. (1982). A componential interpretation of the general factor in human intelligence. In Eysenck, H. J. (ed.), A Model for Intelligence, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 231–254. Sternberg, R. J., and Gardner, M. K. (1983). Unities in inductive reasoning. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 112: 80–116. Sternberg, R. J., and Gastel, J. (1989a). Coping with novelty in human intelligence: An empirical investigation. Intelligence 13: 187–197. Sternberg, R. J., and Gastel, J. (1989b). If dancers ate their shoes: Inductive reasoning with factual and counterfactual premises. Memory Cogn. 17: 1–10. Sternberg, R. J., and Grigorenko, E. L. (1997, Fall). The cognitive costs of physical and mental ill health: Applying the psychology of the developed world to the problems of the developing world. Eye Psi Chi 2(1): 20–27. Sternberg, R. J., and Grigorenko, E. L. (2000). Teaching for Successful Intelligence, Skylight Training and Publishing Inc, Arlington Heights, IL. Sternberg, R. J., and Grigorenko, E. L. (2002a). Dynamic Testing, Cambridge University Press, New York. Sternberg, R. J., and Grigorenko, E. L. (eds.). (2002b). The General Factor of Intelligence: How General Is It?, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Mahwah, NJ. Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., Ferrari, M., and Clinkenbeard, P. (1999). A triarchic analysis of an aptitude–treatment interaction. Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 15(1): 1–11. Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., Ngrosho, D., Tantufuye, E., Mbise, A., Nokes, C., Jukes, M., and Bundy, D. A. (2002a). Assessing intellectual potential in rural Tanzanian school children. Intelligence 30: 141–162. Sternberg, R. J., and Hedlund, J. (2002). Practical intelligence, g, and work psychology. Human Perform. 15(1/2): 143–160. Sternberg, R. J., and Kalmar, D. A. (1997). When will the milk spoil? Everyday induction in human intelligence. Intelligence 25(3): 185–203. Sternberg, R. J., Kaufman, J. C., and Pretz, J. E. (2002b). The Creativity Conundrum: A Propulsion Model of Kinds of Creative Contributions, Psychology Press, New York. Sternberg, R. J., Kaufman, J. C., and Pretz, J. E. (2003). A propulsion model of creative leadership. Leadership Quart. 14: 455–473. Sternberg, R. J., and Lubart, T. I. (1991). An investment theory of creativity and its development. Human Dev. 34(1): 1–31. Sternberg, R. J., and Lubart, T. I. (1995). Defying the Crowd: Cultivating Creativity in a Culture of Conformity, Free Press, New York. Sternberg, R. J., and Lubart, T. I. (1996). Investing in creativity. Am. Psychol. 51(7): 677–688. Sternberg, R. J., and Nigro, G. (1980). Developmental patterns in the solution of verbal analogies. Child Dev. 51: 27–38. Sternberg, R. J., Nokes, K., Geissler, P. W., Prince, R., Okatcha, F., Bundy, D. A., and Grigorenko, E. L. (2001b). The relationship between academic and practical intelligence: A case study in Kenya. Intelligence 29: 401–418. Sternberg, R. J., and O’ Hara, L. (1999). Creativity and intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.), Handbook of Creativity, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 251–272. Sternberg, R. J., Okagaki, L., and Jackson, A. (1990). Practical intelligence for success in school. Educ. Leadership 48: 35–39. Sternberg, R. J., and Powell, J. S. (1983). Comprehending verbal comprehension. Am. Psychol. 38: 878–893. Sternberg, R. J., Powell, J. S., and Kaye, D. B. (1983). Teaching vocabulary-building skills: A contextual approach. In Wilkinson, A. C. (ed.), Classroom Computers and Cognitive Science, Academic Press, New York, pp. 121–143. Sternberg, R. J., and the Rainbow Project Collaborators (2005). Augmenting the SAT through assessments of analytical, practical, and creative skills. In Camara, W., and Kimmel, E. (eds.), New Tools for Admission to Higher Education, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Sternberg, R. J., and the Rainbow Project Team. (2002, February 16). The Rainbow Project: Augmenting the Validity of the SAT, Paper presented to American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, MA. Sternberg, R. J., the Rainbow Project Collaborators, and University of Michigan Business School Project Collaborators (2004). Theory based university admissions testing for a new millennium. Educ. Psychol. 39(3): 185–198. Sternberg, R. J., and Rifkin, B. (1979). The development of analogical reasoning processes. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 27: 195–232. Sternberg, R. J., and Smith, C. (1985). Social intelligence and decoding skills in nonverbal communication. Soc. Cogn. 2: 168–192. Sternberg, R. J., Torff, B., and Grigorenko, E. L. (1998a). Teaching for successful intelligence raises school achievement. Phi Delta Kappan 79: 667–669. Sternberg, R. J., Torff, B., and Grigorenko, E. L. (1998b). Teaching triarchically improves school achievement. J. Educ. Psychol. 90: 374–384. Sternberg, R. J., and Turner, M. E. (1981). Components of syllogistic reasoning. Acta Psychol. 47: 245–265. Sternberg, R. J., and Vroom, V. H. (2002). The person versus the situation in leadership. Leadership Quart. 13: 301–323. Sternberg, R. J., and Wagner, R. K. (1993). The g–ocentric view of intelligence and job performance is wrong. Curr. Direct. Psychol. Sci. 2(1): 1–4. Sternberg, R. J., Wagner, R. K., and Okagaki, L. (1993). Practical intelligence: The nature and role of tacit knowledge in work and at school. In Reese, H., and Puckett, J. (eds.), Advances in Lifespan Development, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 205–227. Sternberg, R. J., Wagner, R. K., Williams, W. M., and Horvath, J. A. (1995). Testing common sense. Am. Psychol. 50(11): 912–927. Sternberg, R. J., and Williams, W. M. (1996). How to Develop Student Creativity, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA. Sternberg, R. J., and Williams, W. M. (2001). Educational Psychology, Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Stogdill, R. M. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature. J. Psychol. 25: 35–71. Stogdill, R. M., and Coons, A. E. (1957). Leader Behavior: Its Description and Measurement, Bureau of Business Research, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH. Tetewsky, S. J., and Sternberg, R. J. (1986). Conceptual and lexical determinants of nonentrenched thinking. J. Memory Lang. 25: 202–225. Tolstoy, L. (1994). War and Peace (Translated by C. Garnett), Modern Library, New York. Tzuriel, D. (1995). Dynamic-Interactive Assessment: The Legacy of L. S. Vygotsky and Current Developments, Unpublished manuscript. Vernon, P. E. (1971). The Structure of Human Abilities, Methuen, London. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Vroom, V. H., and Jago, A. G. (1978). On the validity of the Vroom–Yetton model. J. Appl. Psychol. 63: 151–162. Vroom, V. H., and Yetton, P. W. (1973). Leadership and Decision Making, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh. Wagner, R. K. (1987). Tacit knowledge in everyday intelligent behavior. J. Person. Soc. Psychol. 52(6): 1236–1247. Wagner, R. K., and Sternberg, R. J. (1986). Tacit knowledge and intelligence in the everyday world. In Sternberg, R. J., and Wagner, R. K. (eds.), Practical Intelligence: Nature and Origins of Competence in the Everyday World, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 51–83. Ward, T. B. (1994). Structured imagination: The role of conceptual structure in exemplar generation. Cogn. Psychol. 27: 1–40. Ward, T. B., Smith, S. M., and Finke, R. A. (1999). Creative cognition. In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.), Handbook of Creativity, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 189–212. Weisberg, R. W. (1986). Creativity, Genius and Other Myths, Freeman, New York. Weisberg, R. W. (1993). Creativity: Beyond the Myth of Genius, Freeman, New York. Williams, W. M., Blythe, T., White, N., Li, J., Sternberg, R. J., and Gardner, H. I. (1996). Practical Intelligence for School: A Handbook for Teachers of Grades 5–8, HarperCollins, New York. Williams, W. M., Blythe, T., White, N., Li, J., Gardner, H., and Sternberg, R. J. (2002). Practical intelligence for school: Developing metacognitive sources of achievement in adolescence. Dev. Rev. 22(2): 162–210. Williams, W. M., and Sternberg, R. J. (1988). Group intelligence: Why some groups are better than others. Intelligence 12: 351–377. Yukl, G. (1994). Leadership in Organizations, 3rd edn., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Zaccaro, S. J., Kemp, C., and Bader, P. (2004). Leader traits and attributes. In Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A. T., and Sternberg, R. J. (eds.), The Nature of Leadership, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 101–124. Zimbardo, P. (1972). Pathology of imprisonment. Society 9(6): 4–8.