Time-Resolved Geometric Feature Tracking Elucidates Laser-Induced Keyhole Dynamics
Tóm tắt
During laser melting of metals, localized metal evaporation resulting in the formation of a keyhole shaped cavity can occur if processing conditions are chosen with high power density. An unstable keyhole can have deleterious effects in certain applications (e.g., laser powder bed fusion) as it increases the likelihood of producing defects such as porosity. In this work, we propose a pipeline that enables complete segmentation and extraction of various geometric features in keyholing conditions. In situ synchrotron high-speed X-ray visualization at the Advanced Photon Source provides large datasets of experimental images with a high spatio-temporal resolution across a range of laser parameters for Ti-6Al-4V. Computer vision image processing techniques were used to extract time-resolved quantitative geometric features (e.g., depth, width, front wall angle) throughout keyhole evolution which were subsequently analyzed to understand the relationship between the variation of local keyhole geometry and processing conditions. This analysis is the first to employ a data-driven approach to further our understanding of the keyholing process regime.
Tài liệu tham khảo
King WE, Anderson AT, Ferencz RM, Hodge NE, Kamath C, Khairallah SA, Rubenchik AM (2015) Laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing of metals; physics, computational, and materials challenges. Appl Phys Rev. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4937809
Semak V, Matsunawa A (1997) The role of recoil pressure in energy balance during laser materials processing. J Phys D Appl Phys. https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/30/18/008
King WE, Barth HD, Castillo VM, Gallegos GF, Gibbs JW, Hahn DE, Kamath C, Rubenchik AM (2014) Observation of keyhole-mode laser melting in laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing. J Mater Process Technol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.06.005
Martin AA, Calta NP, Hammons JA, Khairallah SA, Nielsen MH, Shuttlesworth RM, Sinclair N, Matthews MJ, Jeffries JR, Willey TM, Lee JR (2019) Ultrafast dynamics of laser-metal interactions in additive manufacturing alloys captured by in situ X-ray imaging. Mater Today Adv. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtadv.2019.01.001
Tan W, Shin YC (2014) Analysis of multi-phase interaction and its effects on keyhole dynamics with a multi-physics numerical model. J Phys D Appl Phys. https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/47/34/345501
Kouraytem N, Li X, Cunningham R, Zhao C, Parab N, Sun T, Rollett AD, Spear AD, Tan W (2019) Effect of laser-matter interaction on molten pool flow and keyhole dynamics. Phys Rev Appl. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevApplied.11.064054
Cunningham R, Zhao C, Parab N, Kantzos C, Pauza J, Fezzaa K, Sun T, Rollett AD (2019) Keyhole threshold and morphology in laser melting revealed by ultrahigh-speed X-ray imaging. Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav4687
Cunningham R, Narra SP, Montgomery C, Beuth J, Rollett AD (2017) Synchrotron-based X-ray microtomography characterization of the effect of processing variables on porosity formation in laser power-bed additive manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V. JOM. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-016-2234-1
Zhao C, Guo Q, Li X, Parab N, Fezzaa K, Tan W, Chen L, Sun T (2019) Bulk-explosion-induced metal spattering during laser processing. Phys Rev X. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevX.9.021052
Zhao C, Fezzaa K, Cunningham RW, Wen H, De Carlo F, Chen L, Rollett AD, Sun T (2017) Real-time monitoring of laser powder bed fusion process using high-speed X-ray imaging and diffraction. Sci Rep. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-03761-2
Holm EA, Cohn R, Gao N, Kitahara AR, Matson TP, Lei B, Yarasi SR (2020) Overview: computer vision and machine learning for microstructural characterization and analysis. Metall Mater Trans A. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-020-06008-4
Van Der Walt S, Schönberger JL, Nunez-Iglesias J, Boulogne F, Warner JD, Yager N, Gouillart E, Yu T (2014) Scikit-image: image processing in python. Peer J. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.453
Harris CR, Millman KJ, van der Walt SJ, Gommers R, Virtanen P, Cournapeau D, Wieser E, Taylor J, Berg S, Smith NJ, Kern R, Picus M, Hoyer S, van Kerkwijk MH, Brett M, Haldane A, del Río JF, Wiebe M, Peterson P, Gérard-Marchant P, Sheppard K, Reddy T, Weckesser W, Abbasi H, Gohlke C, Oliphant TE (2020). Array programming with NumPy. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2649-2
Bradski GR, Kaehler A (2008) Learning OpenCV: computer vision with the OpenCV library, first edn. O’Reilly Media
Pizer SM, Amburn EP, Austin JD, Cromartie R, Geselowitz A, Greer T, ter Haar Romeny B, Zimmerman JB, Zuiderveld K (1987) Adaptive histogram equalization and its variations. Comput Vis Graph Image Process. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0734-189X(87)80186-X
OpenCV (2021a) Histograms - 2: Histogram Equalization - OpenCV 4.5.3-dev documentation. https://docs.opencv.org/master/d5/daf/tutorial_py_histogram_equalization.html
OpenCV (2021b) Image Thresholding - OpenCV 4.5.3-dev documentation. https://docs.opencv.org/master/d7/d4d/tutorial_py_thresholding.html
OpenCV (2021c) Morphological Transformations - OpenCV 4.5.3-dev documentation. https://docs.opencv.org/master/d9/d61/tutorial_py_morphological_ops.html
OpenCV (2021d) Smoothing Images - OpenCV 4.5.3-dev documentation. https://docs.opencv.org/master/d4/d13/tutorial_py_filtering.html
OpenCV (2021e) Contour Features - OpenCV 4.5.3-dev documentation. https://docs.opencv.org/master/dd/d49/tutorial_py_contour_features.html
Fabbro R (2020) Depth dependence and keyhole stability at threshold, for different laser welding regimes. Applied Scienceshttps://doi.org/10.3390/app10041487
Zhao C, Parab ND, Li X, Fezzaa K, Tan W, Rollett AD, Sun T (2020) Critical instability at moving keyhole tip generates porosity in laser melting. Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd1587
Corder GW, Foreman DI (2011) Nonparametric statistics for non-statisticians: a step-by-step approach. Wiley, Hoboken. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118165881
Hastie T, Tibshirani R, Friedman J (2009) The elements of statistical learning: data mining, inference, and prediction, 2nd edn. Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-84858-7
Gan Z, Kafka OL, Parab N, Zhao C, Fang L, Heinonen O, Sun T, Liu WK (2021) Universal scaling laws of keyhole stability and porosity in 3D printing of metals. Nat Commun. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22704-0
Tullis T, Albert B (2013) Measuring the user experience: collecting, analyzing, and presenting usability metrics, 2nd edn. Waltham, Morgan Kaufmann. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2011-0-00016-9
Ye J, Khairallah SA, Rubenchik AM, Crumb MF, Guss G, Belak J, Matthews MJ (2019) Energy coupling mechanisms and scaling behavior associated with laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. Adv Eng Mater. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.201900185
Allen TR, Huang W, Tanner JR, Tan W, Fraser JM, Simonds BJ (2020) Energy-coupling mechanisms revealed through simultaneous keyhole depth and absorptance measurements during laser-metal processing. Phys Rev Appl. https://doi.org/10.1103/PHYSREVAPPLIED.13.064070