The role of astrocytes in axonal regeneration in the mammalian CNS

Adrian, 1973, Cell proliferation in injured spinal cord. An electron microscopic study, J. Comp. Neurol., 151, 1, 10.1002/cne.901510102 Alonso, 1993, Reactive astrocytes involved in the formation of lesional scars differ in the mediobasal hypothalamus and in other forebrain regions, J. Neurosci. Res., 34, 523, 10.1002/jnr.490340505 Ard, 1991, Retinal neurite growth on astrocytes is not modified by extracellular matrix, anti-L1 antibody, or oligodendrocytes, Glia, 4, 70, 10.1002/glia.440040109 Audouy, 1999, Adenovirus-mediated suicide gene therapy in an in vitro model of reactive gliosis, Glia, 25, 293, 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1136(19990201)25:3<293::AID-GLIA9>3.0.CO;2-G Balasingam, 1996, Attenuation of astroglial reactivity by interleukin-10, J. Neurosci., 16, 2945, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.16-09-02945.1996 Bandtlow, 2000, NI-35/250/Nogo-A: a neurite growth inhibitor restricting structural plasticity and regeneration of nerve fibers in the adult vertebrate CNS, Glia, 29, 175, 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1136(20000115)29:2<175::AID-GLIA11>3.0.CO;2-F Bandtlow, 1996, The Escherichia coli-derived Fab fragment of the IgM/kappa antibody IN-1 recognizes and neutralizes myelin-associated inhibitors of neurite growth, Eur. J. Biochem., 241, 468, 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1996.00468.x Barrett, 1984, Differences between adult and neonatal rats in their astroglial response to spinal injury, Exp. Neural., 84, 374, 10.1016/0014-4886(84)90234-6 Bates, 1993, Extension and regeneration of corticospinal axons after early spinal injury and the maintenance of corticospinal topography, Exp. Neural., 123, 106, 10.1006/exnr.1993.1144 Beattie, 1990, Metamorphosis alters the response to spinal cord transection in Xenopus laevis frogs, J. Neurobiol., 21, 1108, 10.1002/neu.480210714 Bernstein, 1985, Astrocytes secrete basal lamina after hemisection of rat spinal cord, Brain Res., 327, 135, 10.1016/0006-8993(85)91507-0 Bignami, 1976, The astroglia response to stabbing. Immunofluorescence studies with antibodies to astrocyte-specific protein (GFA), in mammalian and submammalian vertebrates, Neuropathol. Appl. Neural., 2, 99, 10.1111/j.1365-2990.1976.tb00488.x Bignami, 1989, Vimentin-GFAP transition in primary dissociated cultures of rat embryo spinal cord, Int. J. Dev. Neurosci., 7, 343, 10.1016/0736-5748(89)90056-7 Bignami, 1982, Localization of vimentin, the nonspecific intermediate filament protein, in embryonal glia and in early differentiating neurons. In vivo and in vitro immunofluorescence study of the rat embryo with vimentin and neurofilament antisera, Dev. Biol., 91, 286, 10.1016/0012-1606(82)90035-5 Bixby, 1991, Molecular mechanisms of axon growth and guidance, Annu. Rev. Cell. Biol., 7, 117, 10.1146/annurev.cb.07.110191.001001 Bochelen, 1992, 7β-Hydroxycholesterol and 7β-hydroxy-cholesteryl-3-esters reduce the extent of reactive gliosis caused by an electrolytic lesion in rat brain, Neuroscience, 51, 827, 10.1016/0306-4522(92)90523-5 Bovolenta, 1997, Neurite outgrowth inhibitor of gliotic brain tissue. Mode of action and cellular localization, studied with specific monoclonal antibodies, Eur. J. Neurosci., 9, 977, 10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01448.x Bovolenta, 1984, Development of cerebellar astroglia: transitions in form and cytoskeletal content, Dev. Biol., 102, 248, 10.1016/0012-1606(84)90189-1 Bovolenta, 1993, Characterization of a neurite outgrowth inhibitor expressed after CNS injury, Eur. J. Neurosci., 5, 454, 10.1111/j.1460-9568.1993.tb00512.x Bregman, 1993, Recovery of function after spinal cord injury. Mechanisms underlying transplant-mediated recovery of function differ after spinal cord injury in newborn and adult rats, Exp. Neurol., 123, 3, 10.1006/exnr.1993.1136 Bregman, 1995, Recovery from spinal cord injury mediated by antibodies to neurite growth inhibitors, Nature, 378, 498, 10.1038/378498a0 Brook, 1999, Astrocytes re-express nestin in deafferented target territories of the adult rat hippocampus, NeuroReport, 10, 1007, 10.1097/00001756-199904060-00021 Brown, 1947, Abortive regeneration of the transected spinal cord, J. Comp. Neurol., 87, 131, 10.1002/cne.900870204 Brummendorf, 1993, Axonal glycoproteins with immunoglobulin and fibronectin type-III-related domains in vertebrates. Structural features, binding activities, and signal transduction, J. Neurochem., 61, 1207, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1993.tb13611.x Buee, 1989, Qualitative and quantitative comparison of brain proteins in Alzheimer's disease, Biol. Chem. Hoppe Seyler, 370, 1229, 10.1515/bchm3.1989.370.2.1229 Cameron, 1994, Identification of membrane proteins that comprise the plasmalemmal junction between migrating neurons and radial glial cells, J. Neurosci., 14, 3139, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-05-03139.1994 Canning, 1993, Beta-Amyloid of Alzheimer's disease induces reactive gliosis that inhibits axonal outgrowth, Exp. Neurol., 124, 289, 10.1006/exnr.1993.1199 Carlstedt, 1988, Reinnervation of the mammalian spinal cord after neonatal dorsal root crush, J. Neurocytol., 17, 335, 10.1007/BF01187856 Caroni, 1988, Two membrane protein fractions from rat central myelin with inhibitory properties for neurite growth and fibroblast spreading, J. Cell Biol., 106, 1281, 10.1083/jcb.106.4.1281 Chauvet, 1998, Tanycytes present in the adult rat mediobasal hypothalamus support the regeneration of monoaminergic axons, Exp. Neurol., 151, 1, 10.1006/exnr.1998.6784 Cheng, 1997, Gait analysis of adult paraplegic rats after spinal cord repair, Exp. Neurol., 148, 544, 10.1006/exnr.1997.6708 Clarke, 1994, Reactive astrocytes express the embryonic intermediate neurofilament nestin, NeuroReport, 5, 1885, 10.1097/00001756-199410000-00011 Cohen, 1988, Behavioral recovery following spinal transection: functional regeneration in the lamprey CNS, Trends Neurosci., 11, 227, 10.1016/0166-2236(88)90131-2 Colucci-Guyon, 1994, Mice lacking vimentin develop and reproduce without an obvious phenotype, Cell, 79, 679, 10.1016/0092-8674(94)90553-3 Colucci-Guyon, 1999, Cerebellar defect and impaired motor coordination in mice lacking vimentin, Glia, 25, 33, 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1136(19990101)25:1<33::AID-GLIA4>3.0.CO;2-J Dahl, 1981, The vimentin-GFA protein transition in rat neuroglia cytoskeleton occurs at the time of myelination, J. Neurosci. Res., 6, 741, 10.1002/jnr.490060608 Dahl, 1981, Filament proteins in rat optic nerves undergoing Wallerian degeneration: localization of vimentin, the fibroblastic 100-A filament protein, in normal and reactive astrocytes, Exp. Neurol., 73, 496, 10.1016/0014-4886(81)90283-1 Dahl, 1981, Vimentin, the 57000 molecular weight protein of fibroblast filaments, is the major cytoskeletal component in immature glia, Eur. J. Cell Biol., 24, 191 Dahlstrand, 1995, Nestin mRNA expression correlates with the central nervous system progenitor cell state in many, but not all, regions of developing central nervous system, Dev. Brain Res., 84, 109, 10.1016/0165-3806(94)00162-S David, 1981, Axonal elongation into peripheral nervous system `bridges' after central nervous system injury in adult rats, Science, 214, 931, 10.1126/science.6171034 Davies, 1997, Regeneration of adult axons in white matter tracts of the central nervous system, Nature, 390, 680, 10.1038/37776 Davies, 1996, Regeneration of cut adult axons fails even in the presence of continuous aligned glial pathways, Exp. Neurol., 142, 203, 10.1006/exnr.1996.0192 Davis, 1990, Time course of salamander spinal cord regeneration and recovery of swimming HRP retrograde pathway tracing and kinematic analysis, Exp. Neurol., 108, 198, 10.1016/0014-4886(90)90124-B De Witt, 1993, Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans are associated with the lesions of Alzheimer's disease, Exp. Neurol., 121, 149, 10.1006/exnr.1993.1081 Dodd, 1988, Axon guidance and the patterning of neuronal projections in vertebrates, Science, 242, 692, 10.1126/science.3055291 Doherty, 1992, Ganglioside, modulation of neural cell adhesion molecule and N-cadherin-dependent neurite outgrowth, J. Cell Biol., 117, 1093, 10.1083/jcb.117.5.1093 Doherty, 1995, A soluble chimeric form of the L1 glycoprotein stimulates neurite outgrowth, Neuron, 14, 57, 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90240-6 Dowding, 1991, Diversivity amongst the microglia in growing and regenerating fish CNS: immunohistochemical characterization using FL.1, and antimacrophage monoclonal antibody, Glia, 4, 345, 10.1002/glia.440040403 Duffy, 1980, Glial fibrillary acidic protein and Alzheimer-type senile dementia, Neurology, 30, 778, 10.1212/WNL.30.7.778 Eddleston, 1993, Molecular profile of reactive astrocytes. Implications for their role in neurologic disease, Neuroscience, 54, 15, 10.1016/0306-4522(93)90380-X Eddleston, 1996, The M22 antibody identifies highly activated reactive astrocytes responding to central nervous system disease, Acta Neuropathol., 91, 298, 10.1007/s004010050429 Eliasson, 1999, Intermediate filament protein partnership in astrocytes, J. Biol. Chem., 274, 23996, 10.1074/jbc.274.34.23996 Emerling, 1996, Inhibitors and promoters of thalamic neuron adhesion and outgrowth in embryonic neocortex: functional association with chondroitin sulfate, Neuron, 17, 1089, 10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80242-1 Faissner, 1995, Tenascin and janusin: glial recognition molecules involved in neural development and regeneration, 411 Fallon, 1985, Neurite guidance by non-neuronal cells in culture: preferential outgrowth of peripheral neurites on glial as compared to nonglial cell surfaces, J. Neurosci., 5, 3169, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.05-12-03169.1985 Fawcett, 1992, Intrinsic neuronal determinants of regeneration, Trends Neurosci., 15, 5, 10.1016/0166-2236(92)90338-9 Fedoroff, 1983, Astrocyte cell lineage. II. Mouse fibrous astrocytes and reactive astrocytes in cultures have vimentin- and GFPcontaining intermediate filaments, Dev. Brain Res., 283, 303, 10.1016/0165-3806(83)90187-6 Fernaud-Espinosa, 1993, Differential activation of microglia and astrocytes in anisomorphic and isomorphic gliotic tissue, Glia, 8, 277, 10.1002/glia.440080408 Firkins, 1993, Corticospinal tract plasticity and astroglial reactivity after cervical spinal injury in the postnatal rat, Exp. Neurol., 120, 1, 10.1006/exnr.1993.1036 Fitch, 1997, Glial cell extracellular matrix: boundaries for axon growth in development and regeneration, Cell Tissue Res., 290, 379, 10.1007/s004410050944 Fitch, 1999, Beyond the gliar scar. Cellular and molecular mechanisms by which glial cells contribute to CNS regenerative failure, 55 Franke, 1979, Widespread occurrence of intermediate-sized filaments of the vimentin-type in cultured cells from diverse vertebrates, Exp. Cell Res., 123, 25, 10.1016/0014-4827(79)90418-X Frisén, 1997, Determinants of axonal regeneration, Histol. Histopathol., 12, 857 Frisén, 1992, Increased levels of trkB messenger RNA and trkB protein-like immunoreactivity in the injured rat and cat spinal cord, 89, 11282 Frisén, 1995, Spinal axons in central nervous system scar tissue are closely related to laminin-immunoreactive astrocytes, Neuroscience, 65, 293, 10.1016/0306-4522(94)00467-J Frisén, 1995, Rapid, widespread, and longlasting induction of nestin contributes to the generation of glial scar tissue after CNS injury, J. Cell Biol., 131, 453, 10.1083/jcb.131.2.453 Fróes, 1998, Gap junction-mediated loops of neuronal-glial interaction, Glia, 24, 97, 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1136(199809)24:1<97::AID-GLIA10>3.0.CO;2-T Fryer, 1997, Truncated trkB receptors on nonneuronal cells inhibit BDNF-induced neurite outgrowth in vitro, Exp. Neurol., 148, 616, 10.1006/exnr.1997.6699 Garcia-Estrada, 1992, Expression of insulin-like growth factor-I by astrocytes in response to injury, Brain Res., 592, 343, 10.1016/0006-8993(92)91695-B Gearhart, 1979, Histological changes after transection of the spinal cord of fetal and neonatal mice, Exp. Neural., 66, 1, 10.1016/0014-4886(79)90058-X Ghooray, 1993, Development of radial glia and astrocytes in the spinal cord of the North American opossum (Didelphis virginiana): an immunohistochemical study using anti-vimentin anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein, Glia, 9, 1, 10.1002/glia.440090102 Giménez y Ribotta, 1995, Oxysterol (7β-hydroxycholesteryl-3-oleate) promotes serotonergic reinnervation in the lesioned rat spinal cord by reducing glial reaction, J. Neurosci. Res., 41, 79, 10.1002/jnr.490410110 Giménez y Ribotta, 2000, Comparative anatomy of the cerebellar cortex in mice lacking Vimentin, GFAP, and both Vimentin and GFAP, Glia, 31, 69, 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1136(200007)31:1<69::AID-GLIA70>3.0.CO;2-W Gomi, 1995, Mice devoid of the glial fibrillary acidic protein develop normally and are susceptible to scrapie prions, Neuron, 14, 29, 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90238-4 Greenfield, 1958, General pathology of nerve cell and neuroglia, 1 Grill, 1997, Robust growth of chronically injured spinal cord axons induced by graft of genetically modified NGF-secreting cells, Exp. Neurol., 148, 444, 10.1006/exnr.1997.6704 Grill, 1997, Cellular delivery of neurotrophin-3 promotes corticospinal axonal growth and partial functional recovery after spinal cord injury, J. Neurosci., 17, 5560, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-14-05560.1997 Grumet, 1993, Functional characterization of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans of brain. Interactions with neurons and neural cell adhesion molecules, J. Cell Biol., 120, 815, 10.1083/jcb.120.3.815 Guth, 1956, Regeneration in the mammalian peripheral nervous system, Physiol. Rev., 36, 441, 10.1152/physrev.1956.36.4.441 Guth, 1985, Essentiality of a specific cellular terrain for growth of axons into a spinal cord lesion, Exp. Neurol., 88, 1, 10.1016/0014-4886(85)90109-8 Hansen, 1987, An immunohistochemical quantification of fibrous astrocytes in the aging human cerebral cortex, Neurobiol. Aging, 8, 1, 10.1016/0197-4580(87)90051-0 Harrigan, 1995, Beta amyloid is neurotoxic in hippocampal slice cultures, Neurobiol. Aging, 16, 779, 10.1016/0197-4580(95)00095-V Hatten, 1991, Astroglia in CNS injury, Glia, 4, 233, 10.1002/glia.440040215 Holmin, 1997, Adult nestin-expressing subependymal cells differentiate to astrocytes in response to brain injury, Eur. J Neurosci., 9, 65, 10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01354.x Hu, 1996, A septum-derived chemorepulsive factor for migrating olfactory interneuron precursors, Neuron, 16, 933, 10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80116-6 Hu, 1996, The role of polysialic acid in migration of olfactory bulb interneuron precursors in the subventricular zone, Neuron, 16, 735, 10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80094-X Ip, 1993, Injury-induced regulation of ciliary neurotrophic factor mRNA in the adult rat brain, Eur. J. Neurosci., 5, 25, 10.1111/j.1460-9568.1993.tb00201.x Ishikawa, 1991, Appearance of nerve growth factor and acidic fibroblast growth factor with different time courses in the cavity-lesioned cortex of the rat brain, Neurosci. Lett., 127, 70, 10.1016/0304-3940(91)90897-3 Johansson, 1999, Identification of a neural stem cell in the adult mammalian central nervous system, Cell, 96, 25, 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80956-3 Kalderon, 1996, Structural recovery in lesioned adult mammalian spinal cord by x-irradiation of the lesion site, 93, 11179 Kalil, 1982, A light and electron microscopic study of regrowing pyramidal tract fibers, J. Comp. Neurol., 211, 265, 10.1002/cne.902110305 Kawaja, 1991, Reactive astrocytes are substrates for the growth of adult CNS axons in the presence of elevated levels of nerve growth factor, Neuron, 7, 1019, 10.1016/0896-6273(91)90346-2 Keirstead, 1998, A quantifiable model of axonal regeneration in the demyelinated adult rat spinal cord, Exp. Neurol., 151, 303, 10.1006/exnr.1998.6806 Kimmel, 1947, Dorsal roots following anastomosis of the central stumps, J. Comp. Neurol., 87, 289, 10.1002/cne.900870303 Kliot, 1990, Astrocyte-polymer implants promote regeneration of dorsal root fibers into the adult mammalian spinal cord, Exp. Neurol., 109, 57, 10.1016/S0014-4886(05)80008-1 Koshinaga, 1993, Altered acidic and basic fibroblast growth factor expression following spinal cord injury, Exp. Neurol., 120, 32, 10.1006/exnr.1993.1038 Kupferberg, 1990, Metabolism of 7beta-hydroxycholesterol in the astrocyte primar cultures and derived spontaneously transformed cells lines: correlation between the esterification on C-3-OH by naturally occurring fatty acids and cytotoxicity, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1046, 106, 10.1016/0005-2760(90)90100-C Lang, 1995, CNS myelin and oligodendrocytes of the Xenopus spinal cord — but not optic nerve — are nonpermissive for axon growth, J. Neurosci., 15, 99, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.15-01-00099.1995 Latov, 1979, Fibrillary astrocytes proliferate in response to brain injury. A study combining immunoperoxidase technique for glial fibrillary acidic protein and radioautography of tritiated thymidine, Dev. Biol., 72, 381, 10.1016/0012-1606(79)90127-1 Lazarides, 1982, Intermediate filaments: a chemically heterogenous, developmentally regulated class of protein, Annu. Rev. Biochem., 51, 219, 10.1146/annurev.bi.51.070182.001251 Le Roux, 1996, Reactive astroglia support primary dendritic but not axonal outgrowth from mouse cortical neurons in vitro, Exp. Neurol., 137, 49, 10.1006/exnr.1996.0006 Lefrançois, 1997, Neuritic outgrowth associated with astroglial phenotypic changes induced by antisense glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), mRNA in injured neuron-astrocyte cocultures, J. Neurosci., 17, 4121, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-11-04121.1997 Legrand, 1998, Pregnenolone reverses the age-dependent accumulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein within astrocytes of specific regions of the rat brain, Brain Res., 802, 125, 10.1016/S0006-8993(98)00580-0 Lendahl, 1990, CNS stem cells express a new class of intermediate filament protein, Cell, 60, 585, 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90662-X Li, 1997, Repair of adult rat corticospinal tract by transplants of olfactory ensheathing cells, Science, 277, 2000, 10.1126/science.277.5334.2000 Liesi, 1988, Is astrocyte laminin involved in axon guidance in the mammalian CNS?, Dev. Biol., 130, 774, 10.1016/0012-1606(88)90366-1 Liesi, 1983, Laminin is produced by early rat astrocytes in primary culture, J. Cell Biol., 96, 920, 10.1083/jcb.96.3.920 Liesi, 1984, Laminin is induced in astrocytes of adult brain by injury, EMBO J., 3, 683, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1984.tb01867.x Lin, 1995, Re-expression of the intermediate filament nestin in reactive astrocytes, Neurobiol. Dis., 2, 79, 10.1006/nbdi.1995.0008 Lindholm, 1992, Transforming growth factor-betal in the rat brain. Increase after injury and inhibition of astrocyte proliferation, J. Cell Biol., 117, 395, 10.1083/jcb.117.2.395 Lindsay, 1988, Nerve growth factors (NGF, BDNF) enhance axonal regeneration but are not required for survival of adult sensory neurons, J. Neurosci., 8, 2394, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.08-07-02394.1988 Liuzzi, 1987, Astrocytes block axonal regeneration in mammals by activating the physiological stop pathway, Science, 237, 642, 10.1126/science.3603044 Logan, 1992, A time course for the focal elevation of synthesis of basic fibroblast growth factor and one of its high-affinity receptors (flg) following a localized cortical brain injury, J. Neurosci., 12, 3828, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.12-10-03828.1992 Logan, 1994, Effects of transforming growth factor beta I on scar production in the injured central nervous system of the rat, Eur. J. Neurosci., 6, 355, 10.1111/j.1460-9568.1994.tb00278.x Lois, 1996, Chain migration of neuronal precursors, Science, 271, 978, 10.1126/science.271.5251.978 Lurie, 1991, Axonal regeneration in the adult lamprey spinal cord, J. Comp. Neurol., 306, 409, 10.1002/cne.903060305 Lurie, 1994, Structure of reticulospinal axon growth cones and their cellular environment during regeneration in the lamprey spinal cord, J. Comp. Neurol., 344, 559, 10.1002/cne.903440406 Malhotra, 1994, Adaptative plasticity and diversity among reactive astrocytes in central nervous system lesions, Biomed. Lett., 49, 273 Mancardi, 1983, Fibrous astrocytes in Alzheimer's disease and senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type, Acta Neuropathol., 61, 76, 10.1007/BF00688390 Mansour, 1990, Permissive and non-permissive reactive astrocytes: Immunofluorescence study with hyaluronate-binding protein, J. Neurosci. Res., 25, 300, 10.1002/jnr.490250306 Marvin, 1998, A rod end deletion in the intermediate filament protein nestin alters its subcellular localization in neuroepithelial cells of transgenic mice, J. Cell Sci., 111, 1951, 10.1242/jcs.111.14.1951 McDonald, 1999, Transplanted embryonic stem cells survive, differentiate and promote recovery in injured rat spinal cord, Nat. Med., 5, 1410, 10.1038/70986 McKay, 1997, Stem cells in the central nervous system, Science, 276, 66, 10.1126/science.276.5309.66 McKeon, 1991, Reduction of neurite outgrowth in a model of glial scarring following CNS injury is correlated with the expression of inhibitory molecules on reactive astrocytes, J. Neurosci., 11, 3398, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.11-11-03398.1991 McKeon, 1995, Injury-induced proteoglycans inhibit the potential for laminin-mediated axon growth on astrocytic scars, Exp. Neurol., 136, 32, 10.1006/exnr.1995.1081 Menei, 1998, Schwann cells genetically modified to secrete human BDNF promote enhanced axonal regrowth across transected adult rat spinal cord, Eur. J Neurosci., 10, 607, 10.1046/j.1460-9568.1998.00071.x Mikucki, 1991, Vimentin mRNA expression increases after corticospinal axotomy in the adult hamster, Metab. Brain Dis., 6, 33, 10.1007/BF01000383 Moolten, 1986, Tumor chemosensitivity conferred by inserted herpes thymidine kinase genes: paradigm for prospective cancer control strategy, Cancer Res., 46, 5276 Morin-Richaud, 1998, Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes reactions after a total section of the rat spinal cord, Brain Res., 783, 85, 10.1016/S0006-8993(97)01282-1 Morshead, 1994, Neural stem cells in the adult mammalian forebrain: a relatively quiescent subpopulation of subependymal cells, Neuron, 13, 1071, 10.1016/0896-6273(94)90046-9 Nedergaard, 1994, Direct signaling from astrocytes to neurons in cultures of mammalian brain cells, Science, 263, 1768, 10.1126/science.8134839 Needels, 1986, Induction of a neurite-promoting factor in rat brain following injury or deafferentation, Neuroscience, 18, 517, 10.1016/0306-4522(86)90055-2 Nicholls, 1996, Regeneration of immature mammalian spinal cord after injury, Trends Neurosci., 19, 229, 10.1016/0166-2236(96)10021-7 Nichols, 1993, GFAP mRNA increases with age in rat and human brain, Neurobiol. Aging, 14, 421, 10.1016/0197-4580(93)90100-P Nieto-Sampedro, 1987, Astrocyte mitogenic activity in aged normal and Alzheimer's human brain, Neurobiol. Aging, 8, 249, 10.1016/0197-4580(87)90009-1 Nieto-Sampedro, 1982, Brain injury causes a time-dependent increase in neuronotrophic activity at the lesion site, Science, 217, 860, 10.1126/science.7100931 Nieto-Sampedro, 1983, Injury-induced neuronotrophic activity in adult rat brain: correlation with survival of delayed implants in the wound cavity, J. Neurosci., 3, 2219, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.03-11-02219.1983 Noble, 1985, Glial cells express N-CAM/D2-CAM-like polypeptides in vitro, Nature, 316, 725, 10.1038/316725a0 Noble, 1984, Glia are a unique substrate for the in vitro growth of central nervous system neurons, J. Neurosci., 4, 1892, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.04-07-01892.1984 Norton, 1992, Quantitative aspects of reactive gliosis. A review, Neurochem. Res., 17, 877, 10.1007/BF00993263 Oblinger, 1993, Reactive astrocytes in neonate brain upregulate intermediate filament gene expression in response to axonal injury, Int. J Dev. Neurosci., 11, 149, 10.1016/0736-5748(93)90075-O Ono, 1994, N-CAM mutation inhibits tangential neuronal migration and is phenocopied by enzymatic removal of polysialic acid, Neuron, 13, 595, 10.1016/0896-6273(94)90028-0 O'Rourke, 1997, Postmitotic neurons migrate tangentially in the cortical ventricular zone, Development, 124, 997, 10.1242/dev.124.5.997 Pekny, 1995, Mice lacking glial fibrillary acidic protein display astrocytes devoid of intermediate filaments but develop and reproduce normally, EMBO J., 14, 1590, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1995.tb07147.x Pekny, 1999, Abnormal reaction to central nervous system injury in mice lacking glial fibrillary acidic protein and vimentin, J. Cell Biol., 145, 503, 10.1083/jcb.145.3.503 Pixley, 1984, Transition between immature radial glia and mature astrocytes studied with a monoclonal antibody to vimentin, Dev. Brain Res., 317, 201, 10.1016/0165-3806(84)90097-X Pixley, 1987, Preferential adhesion of brain astrocytes to laminin and central neurites to astrocytes, J. Neurosci. Res., 18, 402, 10.1002/jnr.490180304 Prieto, 2000, Tanycytes transplanted into the adult rat spinal cord support the regeneration of lesioned axons, Exp. Neurol., 161, 27, 10.1006/exnr.1999.7223 Privat, 1981, Proliferation of neuroglial cell lines in the degenerating optic nerve of young rats. A radioautographic study, J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol., 40, 46, 10.1097/00005072-198101000-00006 Privat, 1995, Morphology of astrocytes, 3 Quinlan, 1983, Molecular interactions in intermediate-sized filaments revealed by chemical crosslinking: heteropolymers of vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic protein in cultured human glioma cells, Eur. J. Biochem., 132, 477, 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1983.tb07386.x Rakic, 1995, Radial glial cells: scaffolding for brain construction, 746 Rakic, 1973, Organization of cerebellar cortex secondary to deficit of granule cells in weaver mutant mice, J. Comp. Neurol., 152, 133, 10.1002/cne.901520203 Rakic, 1994, Recognition, adhesion, transmembrane signaling and cell motility in guided neuronal migration, Curr Opin. Neurobiol., 4, 63, 10.1016/0959-4388(94)90033-7 Ramón-Cueto, 1994, Regeneration into the spinal cord of transected dorsal root axons is promoted by ensheathing glia transplants, Exp. Neurol., 127, 232, 10.1006/exnr.1994.1099 Ramón-Cueto, 1998, Long-distance axonal regeneration in the transected adult rat spinal cord is promoted by olfactory ensheathing glia transplants, J. Neurosci., 18, 3803, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-10-03803.1998 Ramón-Cueto, 2000, Functional recovery of paraplegic rats and motor axon regeneration in their spinal cords by olfactory ensheathing glia, Neuron, 25, 425, 10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80905-8 Ramón y Cajal, 1928 Rataboul, 1988, Identification of a human glial fibrillary acidic protein cDNA: a tool for the molecular analysis of reactive gliosis in the mammalian central nervous system, J. Neurosci. Res., 20, 165, 10.1002/jnr.490200204 Rataboul, 1990, Analysis of glial scarring in the mammalian CNS with a GFAP cDNA probe, Vol. 265, 23 Reichardt, 1991, Extracellular matrix molecules and their receptors: functions in neural development, Annu. Rev. Neurosci., 14, 531, 10.1146/annurev.ne.14.030191.002531 Reier, 1983, The astrocytec scar as an impediment to regeneration in the central nervous system, 163 Reier, 1989, Reactive astrocyte and axonal outgrowth in the injured CNS: Is gliosis really an impediment to regeneration?, Vol. 6, 183 Renkawek, 1994, Expression of alpha B-crystallin in Alzheimer's disease, Acta Neuropathol., 87, 155, 10.1007/BF00296185 Reynolds, 1992, Generation of neurons and astrocytes from isolated cells of the adult mammalian central nervous system, Science, 255, 1707, 10.1126/science.1553558 Richardson, 1980, Axons from CNS neurons into PNS grafts, Nature, 284, 264, 10.1038/284264a0 Ridet, 1996, Immunocytochemical characterization of a new marker of fibrous and reactive astrocytes, Cell Tissue Res., 283, 39, 10.1007/s004410050510 Ridet, 1997, Reactive astrocytes: cellular and molecular cues to biological function, Trends Neurosci., 20, 570, 10.1016/S0166-2236(97)01139-9 Ridet, 2000, Effects of spinal cord X-irradiation on the recovery of paraplegic rats, Exp. Neurol., 161, 1, 10.1006/exnr.1999.7206 Ridet, 2000, Reactive astrocytes, their roles in CNS injury, and repair mechanisms, Vol. 6, 147 Risling, 1993, Regrowth of motor axons following spinal cord lesions. Distribution of laminin and collagen in the CNS scar tissue, Brain Res. Bull., 30, 405, 10.1016/0361-9230(93)90272-D Rousselot, 1995, Embryonic (PSA) N-CAM reveals chains of migrating neuroblasts between the lateral ventricle and the olfactory bulb of adult mice, J. Comp. Neurol., 351, 51, 10.1002/cne.903510106 Rudge, 1989, An in vitro model of wound healing in the CNS: analysis of cell reaction and interaction at different ages, Exp. Neurol., 103, 1, 10.1016/0014-4886(89)90180-5 Ruoslahti, 1991, Proteoglycans as modulators of growth factor activities, Cell, 64, 867, 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90308-L Rutishauser, 1996, Polysialic acid in the vertebrate nervous system: a promoter of plasticity in cell-cell interactions, Trends Neurosci., 19, 422, 10.1016/0166-2236(96)10041-2 Saffell, 1992, Direct activation of second messenger pathways mimics cell adhesion moleculedependent neurite outgrowth, J. Cell Biol., 118, 663, 10.1083/jcb.118.3.663 Sajin, 1994, Cells on the edge: boundary astrocytes and neurons, Perspect. Dev. Neurobiol., 2, 275 Schachner, 1994, Neural recognition molecules in disease and regeneration, Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 4, 726, 10.1016/0959-4388(94)90016-7 Schiffer, 1986, Glial fibrillary acidic protein and vimentin in the experimental glial reaction of the rat brain, Brain Res., 374, 110, 10.1016/0006-8993(86)90399-9 Schipper, 1993, Quiescent and cycling cell compartments in the senescent and Alzheimer-diseased human brain, Neurology, 43, 87, 10.1212/WNL.43.1_Part_1.87 Schnell, 1990, Axonal regeneration in the rat spinal cord produced by an antibody against myelin-associated neurite growth inhibitors, Nature, 343, 269, 10.1038/343269a0 Schnell, 1994, Neurotrophin-3 enhances sprouting of corticospinal tract during development and after adult spinal cord lesion, Nature, 367, 170, 10.1038/367170a0 Schnitzer, 1981, Immunocytochemical demonstration of vimentin in astrocytes and ependymal cells of developing and adult mouse nervous system, J. Cell Biol., 90, 435, 10.1083/jcb.90.2.435 Schousboe, 1995, Transport of neuroactive amino acids in astrocytes, 246 Schwab, 1996, Degeneration and regeneration of axons in the lesioned spinal cord, Physiol. Rev., 76, 319, 10.1152/physrev.1996.76.2.319 Selkoe, 1991, The molecular pathology of Alzheimer's disease, Neuron, 6, 487, 10.1016/0896-6273(91)90052-2 Shafit-Zagardo, 1988, Astrocytes regulate GFAP mRNA levels by cyclic AMP and protein kinase C-dependent mechanisms, Glia, 1, 346, 10.1002/glia.440010507 Sharp, 1982, Occurrence of two different intermediate filament proteins in the same filament in situ within a human glioma cell line. An immunoelectron microscopical study, Exp. Cell Res., 141, 385, 10.1016/0014-4827(82)90227-0 Shaw, 1981, An immunofluorescence microscopical study of the neurofilament triplet proteins, vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic protein within the adult rat brain, Eur. J. Cell Biol., 26, 68 Sheppard, 1995, Neuronal production of fibronectin in the cerebral cortex during migration and layer formation is unique to specific cortical domains, Dev. Biol., 172, 504, 10.1006/dbio.1995.8034 Silver, 1984, Studies on the factors that govern directionality of axonal growth in the embryonic optic nerve and at the chiasm of mice, J. Comp. Neurol., 223, 238, 10.1002/cne.902230207 Silver, 1993, Immunocytochemical demonstration of early appearing astroglial structures that form boundaries and pathways along axon tracts in the fetal brain, J. Comp. Neurol., 328, 415, 10.1002/cne.903280308 Singer, 1979, Axonal guidance during embryogenesis and regeneration in the spinal cord of the newt: the blueprint hypothesis of neuronal pathway patterning, J. Comp. Neurol., 185, 1, 10.1002/cne.901850102 Sloane, 2000, Astrocytic hypertrophy and altered GFAP degradation with age in subcortical white matter of the rhesus monkey, Brain Res., 862, 1, 10.1016/S0006-8993(00)02059-X Smith, 1990, Maturation of astrocytes in vitro alters the extent and molecular basis of neurite outgrowth, Dev. Biol., 138, 377, 10.1016/0012-1606(90)90204-V Snow, 1992, Peripheral distribution of dermatan sulfate proteoglycans (decorin) in amyloid-containing plaques and their presence in neurofibrillary tangles of Alzheimer's disease, J. Histochem. Cytochem., 40, 105, 10.1177/40.1.1370306 Snow, 1990, Sulfated proteoglycans in astroglial barriers inhibit neurite outgrowth in vitro, Exp. Neurol., 109, 111, 10.1016/S0014-4886(05)80013-5 Stensaas, 1987, Inhibition of regeneration: the ultrastructure of reactive astrocytes and abortive axon terminals in the transition zone of the dorsal root, Vol. 71, 457 Steward, 1993, The process of reinnervation in the dentate gyrus of adult rats. Temporal relationship between changes in the levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and GFAP mRNA in reactive astrocytes, Exp. Neurol., 124, 167, 10.1006/exnr.1993.1187 Sutin, 1993, Beta-adrenergic receptor blockade suppresses glial scar formation, Exp. Neurol., 120, 214, 10.1006/exnr.1993.1056 Takamiya, 1988, Immunohistochemical studies on the proliferation of reactive astrocytes and the expression of cytoskeletal proteins following brain injury in rats, Dev. Brain Res., 38, 201, 10.1016/0165-3806(88)90045-4 Takeichi, 1991, Cadherin cell adhesion receptors as a morphogenetic regulator, Science, 251, 1451, 10.1126/science.2006419 Tello, 1911, La influencia del neurotropismo en la regeneracion de los centros nerviosos, Trab. Lab. Invest. Biol., 9, 123 Teng, 1998, Basic and acidic fibroblast growth factors protect spinal motor neurones in vivo after experimental spinal cord injury, Eur. J Neurosci., 10, 798, 10.1046/j.1460-9568.1998.00100.x Thallmair, 1998, Neurite growth inhibitors restrict plasticity and functional recovery following corsticospinal tract lesions, Nat. Neurosci., 1, 124, 10.1038/373 Tolbert, 1987, Redirected growth of pyramidal tract axons following neonatal pyramidotomy in cats, J. Comp. Neurol., 260, 299, 10.1002/cne.902600210 Tomaselli, 1988, N-cadherin and integrins: two receptor systems that mediate neuronal process outgrowth on astrocyte surfaces, Neuron, 1, 33, 10.1016/0896-6273(88)90207-3 Tower, 1931, A search for trophic influence of posterior spinal roots on skeletal muscle, with a note on the nerve fibers found in the proximal stumps of the roots after excision of the root ganglia, Brain, 54, 99, 10.1093/brain/54.1.99 Treherne, 1992, Restoration of conduction and growth of axons through injured spinal cord of neonatal opossum in culture, 89, 431 Tuszynski, 1998, Grafts of genetically modified Schwann cells to the spinal cord: survival, axon growth, and myelination, Cell Transplant., 7, 187, 10.1016/S0963-6897(97)00166-8 Waehneldt, 1986, Appearance of myelin proteins during vertebrate evolution, Neurochem. Int., 9, 463, 10.1016/0197-0186(86)90136-1 Walz, 1989, Role of glial cells in the regulation of the brain ion microenvironment, Prog. Neurobiol., 33, 309, 10.1016/0301-0082(89)90005-1 Wang, 1984, Identification of glial filament protein and vimentin in the same intermediate filament system in human glioma cells, 81, 2102 Weiss, 1996, Multipotent CNS stem cells are present in the adult mammalian spinal cord and ventricular neuroaxis, J. Neurosci., 16, 7599, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.16-23-07599.1996 Wichterle, 1997, Direct evidence for homotypic, glia-independent neuronal migration, Neuron, 18, 779, 10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80317-7 Williams, 1994, Activation of the FGF receptor underlies neurite outgrowth stimulated by L1, N-CAM, and N-cadherin, Neuron, 13, 583, 10.1016/0896-6273(94)90027-2 Wolburg, 1995, Formation of the bloodbrain barrier, 763 Xu, 1999, Glial fibrillary acidic protein is necessary for mature astrocytes to react to beta-amyloid, Glia, 25, 390, 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1136(19990215)25:4<390::AID-GLIA8>3.0.CO;2-7 Xu, 1991, Evidence for new growth and regeneration of cut axons in developmental plasticity of the rubrospinal tract in the North American opossum, J. Comp. Neurol., 313, 103, 10.1002/cne.903130108 Young, 1989, The ultrastructural localization of sulfated proteoglycans is identical in the amyloids of Alzheimer's disease and AA, AL, senile cardiac and medullary carcinoma-associated amyloidosis, Acta Neuropathol., 78, 202, 10.1007/BF00688210 Z'Graggen, 1998, Functional recovery and enhanced corticofugal plasticity after unilateral pyramidal tract lesion and blockade of myelin-associated neurite growth inhibitors in adult rats, J. Neurosci., 18, 4744, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-12-04744.1998 Zheng, 1996, CNS gene encoding astrotactin, which supports neuronal migration along glial fibers, Science, 272, 417, 10.1126/science.272.5260.417