The effects of oxidative stress on female reproduction: a review

Al-Gubory KH, Fowler PA, Garrel C: The roles of cellular reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress and antioxidants in pregnancy outcomes. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2010, 42: 1634-1650. Burton GJ, Jauniaux E: Oxidative Stress. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2010, 25: 287-299. Cindrova-Davies T, Yung HW, Johns J, Spasic-Boskovic O, Korolchuk S, Jauniaux E, Burton GJ, Charnock-Jones DS: Oxidative stress, gene expression, and protein changes induced in the human placenta during labor. Am J Pathol. 2007, 171: 1168-1179. Ruder EH, Hartman TJ, Goldman MB: Impact of oxidative stress on female fertility. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2009, 21: 219-222. Chandra A, Surti N, Kesavan S, Agarwal A: Significance of oxidative stress in human reproduction. Arch Med. 2009, 5: 528-542. Webster RP, Roberts VH, Myatt L: Protein nitration in placenta - functional significance. Placenta. 2008, 29: 985-994. Kovacic P: Unifying mechanism for addiction and toxicity of abused drugs with application to dopamine and glutamate mediators: electron transfer and reactive oxygen species. Med Hypotheses. 2005, 65: 90-96. Hennig B, Hammock BD, Slim R, Toborek M, Saraswathi V, Robertson LW: PCB-induced oxidative stress in endothelial cells: modulation by nutrients. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2002, 205: 95-102. Jirsova S, Masata J, Jech L, Zvarova J: Effect of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2,-bis (4-chlorophenyl)-ethane (DDT) in follicular fluid on the results of in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer (IVF-ET) programs. Fertil Steril. 2010, 93: 1831-1836. Samarawickrema N, Pathmeswaran A, Wickremasinghe R, Peiris-John R, Karunaratna M, Buckley N, Dawson A, de Silva J: Fetal effects of environmental exposure of pregnant women to organophosphorus compounds in a rural farming community in Sri Lanka. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2008, 46: 489-495. Fujii J, Iuchi Y, Okada F: Fundamental roles of reactive oxygen species and protective mechanisms in the female reproductive system. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2005, 3: 43- Kehrer JP: The Haber-Weiss reaction and mechanisms of toxicity. Toxicology. 2000, 149: 43-50. Liochev SI: The mechanism of "Fenton-like" reactions and their importance for biological systems. A biologist's view. Met Ions Biol Syst. 1999, 36: 1-39. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JM: Role of free radicals and catalytic metal ions in human disease: an overview. Methods Enzymol. 1990, 186: 1-85. Liu L, Keefe DL: Cytoplasm mediates both development and oxidation-induced apoptotic cell death in mouse zygotes. Biol Reprod. 2000, 62: 1828-1834. Liu L, Trimarchi JR, Keefe DL: Involvement of mitochondria in oxidative stress-induced cell death in mouse zygotes. Biol Reprod. 2000, 62: 1745-1753. Agarwal A: Oxidants and antioxidants in human fertility. Middle East Soc Fertil J. 2004, 9: 187-197. Agarwal A, Gupta S, Sekhon L, Shah R: Redox considerations in female reproductive function and assisted reproduction: from molecular mechanisms to health implications. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2008, 10: 1375-1403. Rosselli M, Keller PJ, Dubey RK: Role of nitric oxide in the biology, physiology and pathophysiology of reproduction. Hum Reprod Update. 1998, 4: 3-24. Visioli F, Hagen TM: Antioxidants to enhance fertility: role of eNOS and potential benefits. Pharmacol Res. 2011, 64: 431-437. Gupta S, Agarwal A, Krajcir N, Alvarez JG: Role of oxidative stress in endometriosis. Reprod Biomed Online. 2006, 13: 126-134. Agarwal A, Gupta S, Sharma RK: Role of oxidative stress in female reproduction. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2005, 3: 28- Hanafy KA, Krumenacker JS, Murad F: NO, nitrotyrosine, and cyclic GMP in signal transduction. Med Sci Monit. 2001, 7: 801-819. Ignarro LJ: Nitric oxide as a unique signaling molecule in the vascular system: a historical overview. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2002, 53: 503-514. Goetz RM, Thatte HS, Prabhakar P, Cho MR, Michel T, Golan DE: Estradiol induces the calcium-dependent translocation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999, 96: 2788-2793. Papapetropoulos A, Garcia-Cardena G, Madri JA, Sessa WC: Nitric oxide production contributes to the angiogenic properties of vascular endothelial growth factor in human endothelial cells. J Clin Invest. 1997, 100: 3131-3139. Lin S, Fagan KA, Li KX, Shaul PW, Cooper DM, Rodman DM: Sustained endothelial nitric-oxide synthase activation requires capacitative Ca2+ entry. J Biol Chem. 2000, 275: 17979-17985. Sladek SM, Magness RR, Conrad KP: Nitric oxide and pregnancy. Am J Physiol. 1997, 272: R441-R463. Bird IM, Zhang L, Magness RR: Possible mechanisms underlying pregnancy-induced changes in uterine artery endothelial function. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003, 284: R245-R258. Boeldt DS, Yi FX, Bird IM: eNOS activation and NO function: pregnancy adaptive programming of capacitative entry responses alters nitric oxide (NO) output in vascular endothelium–new insights into eNOS regulation through adaptive cell signaling. J Endocrinol. 2011, 210: 243-258. Yi FX, Magness RR, Bird IM: Simultaneous imaging of [Ca2+]i and intracellular NO production in freshly isolated uterine artery endothelial cells: effects of ovarian cycle and pregnancy. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005, 288: R140-R148. Yi FX, Boeldt DS, Gifford SM, Sullivan JA, Grummer MA, Magness RR, Bird IM: Pregnancy enhances sustained Ca2+ bursts and endothelial nitric oxide synthase activation in ovine uterine artery endothelial cells through increased connexin 43 function. Biol Reprod. 2010, 82: 66-75. Sullivan JA, Grummer MA, Yi FX, Bird IM: Pregnancy-enhanced endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activation in uterine artery endothelial cells shows altered sensitivity to Ca2+, U0126, and wortmannin but not LY294002–evidence that pregnancy adaptation of eNOS activation occurs at multiple levels of cell signaling. Endocrinology. 2006, 147: 2442-2457. Ducsay CA, Myers DA: eNOS activation and NO function: differential control of steroidogenesis by nitric oxide and its adaptation with hypoxia. J Endocrinol. 2011, 210: 259-269. Xiao D, Bird IM, Magness RR, Longo LD, Zhang L: Upregulation of eNOS in pregnant ovine uterine arteries by chronic hypoxia. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2001, 280: H812-H820. Rees DD, Palmer RM, Moncada S: Role of endothelium-derived nitric oxide in the regulation of blood pressure. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989, 86: 3375-3378. Huang PL, Huang Z, Mashimo H, Bloch KD, Moskowitz MA, Bevan JA, Fishman MC: Hypertension in mice lacking the gene for endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Nature. 1995, 377: 239-242. Versari D, Daghini E, Virdis A, Ghiadoni L, Taddei S: Endothelium-dependent contractions and endothelial dysfunction in human hypertension. Br J Pharmacol. 2009, 157: 527-536. Perkins AV: Endogenous anti-oxidants in pregnancy and preeclampsia. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2006, 46: 77-83. Maiorino M, Bosello V, Ursini F, Foresta C, Garolla A, Scapin M, Sztajer H, Flohe L: Genetic variations of gpx-4 and male infertility in humans. Biol Reprod. 2003, 68: 1134-1141. Sharma RK, Agarwal A: Role of reactive oxygen species in gynecologic diseases. Review article. Reprod Med Biol. 2004, 3: 177-199. Behrman HR, Kodaman PH, Preston SL, Gao S: Oxidative stress and the ovary. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2001, 8: S40-S42. Guerin P: OS and protection against ROS in the preimplantation embryo and its surroundings. Hum Reprod Update. 2001, 7: 175-189. Orsi NM, Gopichandran N, Leese HJ, Picton HM, Harris SE: Fluctuations in bovine ovarian follicular fluid composition throughout the oestrous cycle. Reproduction. 2005, 129: 219-228. Borchert A, Savaskan NE, Kuhn H: Regulation of expression of the phospholipid hydroperoxide/sperm nucleus glutathione peroxidase gene. Tissue-specific expression pattern and identification of functional cis- and trans-regulatory elements. J Biol Chem. 2003, 278: 2571-2580. Shkolnik K, Tadmor A, Ben-Dor S, Nevo N, Galiani D, Dekel N: Reactive oxygen species are indispensable in ovulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011, 108: 1462-1467. Angelucci S, Ciavardelli D, Di Giuseppe F, Eleuterio E, Sulpizio M, Tiboni GM, Giampietro F, Palumbo P, Di Ilio C: Proteome analysis of human follicular fluid. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2006, 1764: 1775-1785. Irani K: Oxidant signaling in vascular cell growth, death, and survival: a review of the roles of reactive oxygen species in smooth muscle and endothelial cell mitogenic and apoptotic signaling. Circ Res. 2000, 87: 179-183. Droge W: Free radicals in the physiological control of cell function. Physiol Rev. 2002, 82: 47-95. Boutros T, Chevet E, Metrakos P: Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase/MAP kinase phosphatase regulation: roles in cell growth, death, and cancer. Pharmacol Rev. 2008, 60: 261-310. Brown MD, Sacks DB: Protein scaffolds in MAP kinase signaling. Cell Signal. 2009, 21: 462-469. Nagai H, Noguchi T, Takeda K, Ichijo H: Pathophysiological roles of ASK1-MAP kinase signaling pathways. J Biochem Mol Biol. 2007, 40: 1-6. Kamata H, Honda S, Maeda S, Chang L, Hirata H, Karin M: Reactive oxygen species promote TNFalpha-induced death and sustained JNK activation by inhibiting MAP kinase phosphatases. Cell. 2005, 120: 649-661. Matsuzawa A, Ichijo H: Redox control of cell fate by MAP kinase: physiological roles of ASK1-MAP kinase pathway in stress signaling. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2008, 1780: 1325-1336. Harvey AJ, Kind KL, Thompson JG: REDOX regulation of early embryo development. Reproduction. 2002, 123: 479-486. Dennery PA: Role of redox in fetal development and neonatal diseases. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2004, 6: 147-153. Rowe T: Fertility and a woman's age. J Reprod Med. 2006, 51: 157-163. Desai N, Sharma R, Makker K, Sabanegh E, Agarwal A: Physiologic and pathologic levels of reactive oxygen species in neat semen of infertile men. Fertil Steril. 2009, 92: 1626-1631. Lekamge DN, Lane M, Gilchrist RB, Tremellen KP: Increased gonadotrophin stimulation does not improve IVF outcomes in patients with predicted poor ovarian reserve. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2008, 25: 515-521. Saalu LC: The incriminating role of reactive oxygen species in idiopathic male infertility: an evidence based evaluation. Pak J Biol Sci. 2010, 13: 413-422. Makker K, Agarwal A, Sharma R: Oxidative stress & male infertility. Indian J Med Res. 2009, 129: 357-367. Cummins JM, Jequier AM, Kan R: Molecular biology of human male infertility: links with aging, mitochondrial genetics, and oxidative stress?. Mol Reprod Dev. 1994, 37: 345-362. Sugino N: Roles of reactive oxygen species in the corpus luteum. Anim Sci J. 2006, 77: 556-565. Fait V, Sela S, Ophir E, Khoury S, Nissimov J, Tkach M, Hirsh Y, Khotaba S, Tarasova L, Oettinger M: Hyperemesis gravidarum is associated with oxidative stress. Am J Perinatol. 2002, 19: 93-98. Holthe MR, Staff AC, Berge LN, Lyberg T: Leukocyte adhesion molecules and reactive oxygen species in preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2004, 103: 913-922. Diamant S, Kissilevitz R, Diamant Y: Lipid peroxidation system in human placental tissue: general properties and the influence of gestational age. Biol Reprod. 1980, 23: 776-781. Little RE, Gladen BC: Levels of lipid peroxides in uncomplicated pregnancy: a review of the literature. Reprod Toxicol. 1999, 13: 347-352. Myatt L, Cui X: Oxidative stress in the placenta. Histochem Cell Biol. 2004, 122: 369-382. Wang YP, Walsh SW, Guo JD, Zhang JY: Maternal levels of prostacyclin, thromboxane, vitamin E, and lipid peroxides throughout normal pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991, 165: 1690-1694. Salmon AB, Richardson A, Perez VI: Update on the oxidative stress theory of aging: does oxidative stress play a role in aging or healthy aging?. Free Radic Biol Med. 2010, 48: 642-655. Crist BL, Alekel DL, Ritland LM, Hanson LN, Genschel U, Reddy MB: Association of oxidative stress, iron, and centralized fat mass in healthy postmenopausal women. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2009, 18: 795-801. Tropea A, Miceli F, Minici F, Tiberi F, Orlando M, Gangale MF, Romani F, Catino S, Mancuso S, Navarra P, et al: Regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor synthesis and release by human luteal cells in vitro. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006, 91: 2303-2309. Giudice LC, Kao LC: Endometriosis. Lancet. 2004, 364: 1789-1799. Carvalho L, Podgaec S, Bellodi-Privato M, Falcone T, Abrao MS: Role of eutopic endometrium in pelvic endometriosis. J Minim Invasive Gynecol. 2011, 18: 419-427. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists: Precis: An Update in Obstetrics and Gynecology: Reproductive Endocrinology. 2007, American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists (US), 3 Wang Y, Sharma RK, Falcone T, Goldberg J, Agarwal A: Importance of reactive oxygen species in the peritoneal fluid of women with endometriosis or idiopathic infertility. Fertil Steril. 1997, 68: 826-830. Ho HN, Wu MY, Chen SU, Chao KH, Chen CD, Yang YS: Total antioxidant status and nitric oxide do not increase in peritoneal fluids from women with endometriosis. Hum Reprod. 1997, 12: 2810-2815. Polak G, Koziol-Montewka M, Gogacz M, Blaszkowska I, Kotarski J: Total antioxidant status of peritoneal fluid in infertile women. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2001, 94: 261-263. Jackson LW, Schisterman EF, Dey-Rao R, Browne R, Armstrong D: Oxidative stress and endometriosis. Hum Reprod. 2005, 20: 2014-2020. Murphy AA, Santanam N, Parthasarathy S: Endometriosis: a disease of oxidative stress?. Semin Reprod Endocrinol. 1998, 16: 263-273. Szczepanska M, Kozlik J, Skrzypczak J, Mikolajczyk M: Oxidative stress may be a piece in the endometriosis puzzle. Fertil Steril. 2003, 79: 1288-1293. Mier-Cabrera M, Jimenez-Zamudio L, Garcia-Latorre E, Cruz-Orozco O, Hernandez-Guerrero C: Quantitative and qualitative peritoneal immune profiles, T-cell apoptosis and oxidative stress-associated characteristics in women with minimal and mild endometriosis. BJOG. 2010, 118: 6-16. Sharma I, Dhaliwal LK, Saha SC, Sangwan S, Dhawan V: Role of 8-iso-prostaglandin F2alpha and 25-hydroxycholesterol in the pathophysiology of endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2010, 94: 63-70. Rong R, Ramachandran S, Santanam N, Murphy AA, Parthasarathy S: Induction of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 in peritoneal mesothelial and endometrial cells by oxidized low-density lipoprotein and peritoneal fluid from women with endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2002, 78: 843-848. Kao J, Rosenstein BS, Peters S, Milano MT, Kron SJ: Cellular response to DNA damage. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2005, 1066: 243-258. Montuschi P, Barnes PJ, Roberts LJ: Isoprostanes: markers and mediators of oxidative stress. FASEB J. 2004, 18: 1791-1800. Morrow JD, Awad JA, Boss HJ, Blair IA, Roberts LJ: Non-cyclooxygenase-derived prostanoids (F2-isoprostanes) are formed in situ on phospholipids. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992, 89: 10721-10725. Pavlovic D, Dordevic V, Kocic G: A “cross-talk” between oxidative stress and redox cell signaling. Med Biol. 2002, 19: 131-137. Basu S: Isoprostanes: novel bioactive products of lipid peroxidation. Free Radic Res. 2004, 38: 105-122. Seal RL, Gordon SM, Lush MJ, Wright MW, Bruford EA: genenames.org: the HGNC resources in 2011. Nucliec Acids Res. 2011, 39: D514-D519. Uygungil B, Moran LA: Database of Human HSP70 Genes. Database of Human HSP70 Genes. Edited by: Moran LA. 2005 Remakova M, Skoda M, Faustova M, Mann H, Krystufková O, Vencovsky J, Novota P: Gene regulation and signaling: The expression regulation of the HSPA1B gene in patients with myositis is not dependent on the presence of HLA-DRB1*03 risk allele. Ann Rheum Dis. 2011, 70: A19-A20. Rérole A, Gaëtan J, Garrido C: Molecular Chaperones: Methods and Protocols. Edited by: Calderwood SK, Prince TL. 2011, Heidelberg: Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 205-230.Hsp70: Anti-apoptotic and tumorigenic protein, Methods in Molecular Biology Proctor CJ, Lorimer IA: Modelling the role of the Hsp70/Hsp90 system in the maintenance of protein homeostasis. PLoS One. 2011, 6: e22038- Morishima N: Control of cell fate by Hsp70: more than an evanescent meeting. J Biochem. 2005, 137: 449-453. Arya R, Mallik M, Lakhotia SC: Heat shock genes - integrating cell survival and death. J Biosci. 2007, 32: 595-610. Beere HM: Death versus survival: functional interaction between the apoptotic and stress-inducible heat shock protein pathways. J Clin Invest. 2005, 115: 2633-2639. Ciocca DR, Calderwood SK: Heat shock proteins in cancer: diagnostic, prognostic, predictive, and treatment implications. Cell Stress Chaperones. 2005, 10: 86-103. Khan KN, Kitajima M, Imamura T, Hiraki K, Fujishita A, Sekine I, Ishimaru T, Masuzaki H: Toll-like receptor 4-mediated growth of endometriosis by human heat-shock protein 70. Hum Reprod. 2008, 23: 2210-2219. Noonan EJ, Place RF, Giardina C, Hightower LE: Hsp70B' regulation and function. Cell Stress Chaperones. 2007, 12: 393-402. Lambrinoudaki IV, Augoulea A, Christodoulakos GE, Economou EV, Kaparos G, Kontoravdis A, Papadias C, Creatsas G: Measurable serum markers of oxidative stress response in women with endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2009, 91: 46-50. Chehna-Patel N, Warty N, Sachdeva G, Khole V: Proteolytic tailoring of the heat shock protein 70 and its implications in the pathogenesis of endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2011, 95: 1560-1567. Santanam N, Murphy AA, Parthasarathy S: Macrophages, oxidation, and endometriosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002, 955: 183-198. discussion 119-200, 396-406 Kajihara H, Yamada Y, Kanayama S, Furukawa N, Noguchi T, Haruta S, Yoshida S, Sado T, Oi H, Kobayashi H: New insights into the pathophysiology of endometriosis: from chronic inflammation to danger signal. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2011, 27: 73-79. Foyouzi N, Berkkanoglu M, Arici A, Kwintkiewicz J, Izquierdo D, Duleba AJ: Effects of oxidants and antioxidants on proliferation of endometrial stromal cells. Fertil Steril. 2004, 82 (Suppl 3): 1019-1022. Li YQ, Zhang ZX, Xu YJ, Ni W, Chen SX, Yang Z, Ma D: N-Acetyl-L-cysteine and pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate inhibited nuclear factor-kappaB activation in alveolar macrophages by different mechanisms. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2006, 27: 339-346. Ngo C, Chereau C, Nicco C, Weill B, Chapron C, Batteux F: Reactive oxygen species controls endometriosis progression. Am J Pathol. 2009, 175: 225-234. McCubrey JA, Lahair MM, Franklin RA: Reactive oxygen species-induced activation of the MAP kinase signaling pathways. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2006, 8: 1775-1789. Banu SK, Lee J, Speights VO, Starzinski-Powitz A, Arosh JA: Selective inhibition of prostaglandin E2 receptors EP2 and EP4 induces apoptosis of human endometriotic cells through suppression of ERK1/2, AKT, NFkappaB, and beta-catenin pathways and activation of intrinsic apoptotic mechanisms. Mol Endocrinol. 2009, 23: 1291-1305. Harada T, Taniguchi F, Izawa M, Ohama Y, Takenaka Y, Tagashira Y, Ikeda A, Watanabe A, Iwabe T, Terakawa N: Apoptosis and endometriosis. Front Biosci. 2007, 12: 3140-3151. Yamaguchi K, Mandai M, Toyokuni S, Hamanishi J, Higuchi T, Takakura K, Fujii S: Contents of endometriotic cysts, especially the high concentration of free iron, are a possible cause of carcinogenesis in the cysts through the iron-induced persistent oxidative stress. Clin Cancer Res. 2008, 14: 32-40. Van Langendonckt A, Casanas-Roux F, Donnez J: Oxidative stress and peritoneal endometriosis. Fertil Steril. 2002, 77: 861-870. Byrne JA, Grieve DJ, Cave AC, Shah AM: Oxidative stress and heart failure. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss. 2003, 96: 214-221. Osborn BH, Haney AF, Misukonis MA, Weinberg JB: Inducible nitric oxide synthase expression by peritoneal macrophages in endometriosis-associated infertility. Fertil Steril. 2002, 77: 46-51. Kobayashi H, Yamada Y, Kanayama S, Furukawa N, Noguchi T, Haruta S, Yoshida S, Sakata M, Sado T, Oi H: The role of iron in the pathogenesis of endometriosis. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2009, 25: 39-52. Pennington JD, Jacobs KM, Sun L, Bar-Sela G, Mishra M, Gius D: Thioredoxin and thioredoxin reductase as redox-sensitive molecular targets for cancer therapy. Curr Pharm Des. 2007, 13: 3368-3377. Savaris AL, do Amaral VF: Nutrient intake, anthropometric data and correlations with the systemic antioxidant capacity of women with pelvic endometriosis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2011, 158: 314-318. Augoulea A, Mastorakos G, Lambrinoudaki I, Christodoulakos G, Creatsas G: The role of the oxidative-stress in the endometriosis-related infertility. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2009, 25: 75-81. Burney RO, Talbi S, Hamilton AE, Vo KC, Nyegaard M, Nezhat CR, Lessey BA, Giudice LC: Gene expression analysis of endometrium reveals progesterone resistance and candidate susceptibility genes in women with endometriosis. Endocrinology. 2007, 148: 3814-3826. Parazzini F, Chiaffarino F, Surace M, Chatenoud L, Cipriani S, Chiantera V, Benzi G, Fedele L: Selected food intake and risk of endometriosis. Hum Reprod. 2004, 19: 1755-1759. Dragsted LO, Pedersen A, Hermetter A, Basu S, Hansen M, Haren GR, Kall M, Breinholt V, Castenmiller JJ, Stagsted J, et al: The 6-a-day study: effects of fruit and vegetables on markers of oxidative stress and antioxidative defense in healthy nonsmokers. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004, 79: 1060-1072. Huang HY, Appel LJ, Croft KD, Miller ER, Mori TA, Puddey IB: Effects of vitamin C and vitamin E on in vivo lipid peroxidation: results of a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002, 76: 549-555. Upritchard JE, Schuurman CR, Wiersma A, Tijburg LB, Coolen SA, Rijken PJ, Wiseman SA: Spread supplemented with moderate doses of vitamin E and carotenoids reduces lipid peroxidation in healthy, nonsmoking adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003, 78: 985-992. Sesti F, Capozzolo T, Pietropolli A, Collalti M, Bollea MR, Piccione E: Dietary therapy: a new strategy for management of chronic pelvic pain. Nutr Res Rev. 2011, 25: 1-8. Mier-Cabrera J, Aburto-Soto T, Burrola-Mendez S, Jimenez-Zamudio L, Tolentino M, Casanueva E, Hernandez-Guerrero C: Women with endometriosis improved their peripheral antioxidant markers after the application of a high antioxidant diet. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2009, 5: 1-11. Mier-Cabrera J, Genera-Garcia M, De La Jara-Diaz J, Perichart-Perera O, Vadillo-Ortega F, Hernandez-Guerrero C: Effect of vitamins C and E supplementation on peripheral oxidative stress markers and pregnancy rate in women with endometriosis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2008, 100: 252-256. Hernández Guerrero CA, Bujalil Montenegro L, de la Jara Díaz J, Mier Cabrera J, Bouchán Valencia P: Endometriosis and deficient intake of antioxidants molecules related to peripheral and peritoneal oxidative stress. Ginecol Obstet Mex. 2006, 74: 20-28. Ozcelik B, Serin IS, Basbug M, Uludag S, Narin F, Tayyar M: Effect of melatonin in the prevention of post-operative adhesion formation in a rat uterine horn adhesion model. Hum Reprod. 2003, 18: 1703-1706. Guney M, Oral B, Karahan N, Mungan T: Regression of endometrial explants in a rat model of endometriosis treated with melatonin. Fertil Steril. 2008, 89: 934-942. Paul S, Sharma AV, Mahapatra PD, Bhattacharya P, Reiter RJ, Swarnakar S: Role of melatonin in regulating matrix metalloproteinase-9 via tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1 during protection against endometriosis. J Pineal Res. 2008, 44: 439-449. Fauser BCJM: Revised 2003 consensus on diagnostic criteria and long-term health risks related to polycystic ovary syndrome: Rotterdam ESHRE/ASRM-Sponsored 3rd PCOS Consensus Workshop Group. Fertil Steril. 2004, 81: 19-25. Setji TL, Holland ND, Sanders LL, Pereira KC, Diehl AM, Brown AJ: Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and nonalcoholic Fatty liver disease in young women with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006, 91: 1741-1747. Hardiman P, Pillay OC, Atiomo W: Polycystic ovary syndrome and endometrial carcinoma. Lancet. 2003, 361: 1810-1812. Creanga AA, Bradley HM, McCormick C, Witkop CT: Use of metformin in polycystic ovary syndrome: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2008, 111: 959-968. Palacio JR, Iborra A, Ulcova-Gallova Z, Badia R, Martinez P: The presence of antibodies to oxidative modified proteins in serum from polycystic ovary syndrome patients. Clin Exp Immunol. 2006, 144: 217-222. Victor VM, Rocha M, Banuls C, Alvarez A, de Pablo C, Sanchez-Serrano M, Gomez M, Hernandez-Mijares A: Induction of oxidative stress and human leukocyte/endothelial cell interactions in polycystic ovary syndrome patients with insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011, 96: 3115-3122. Gonzalez F, Rote NS, Minium J, Kirwan JP: Reactive oxygen species-induced oxidative stress in the development of insulin resistance and hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006, 91: 336-340. Costello MF, Shrestha B, Eden J, Johnson NP, Sjoblom P: Metformin versus oral contraceptive pill in polycystic ovary syndrome: a Cochrane review. Hum Reprod. 2007, 22: 1200-1209. Shai I, Schwarzfuchs D, Henkin Y, Shahar DR, Witkow S, Greenberg I, Golan R, Fraser D, Bolotin A, Vardi H, et al: Weight loss with a low-carbohydrate, Mediterranean, or low-fat diet. N Engl J Med. 2008, 359: 229-241. Polak G, Koziol-Montewka M, Tarkowski R, Kotarski J: Peritoneal fluid and plasma 4-hydroxynonenal and malonyldialdehyde concentrations in infertile women. Ginekol Pol. 2001, 72: 1316-1320. Polak G, Rola R, Gogacz M, Koziol-Montewka M, Kotarski J: Malonyldialdehyde and total antioxidant status in the peritoneal fluid of infertile women. Ginekol Pol. 1999, 70: 135-140. Gupta S, Surti N, Metterle L, Chandra A, Agarwal A: Antioxidants and female reproductive pathologies. Arch Med. 2009, 5: 151-173. Badaiwy A, Baker El Nashar A, El Totongy M: Clomiphene citrate plus N-acetyl cysteine versus clomiphene citrate for augmenting ovulation in the management of unexplained infertility: a randomized double-blind controlled trial. Fertil Steril. 2006, 86: 647-650. Altmae S, Stavreus-Evers A, Ruiz JR, Laanpere M, Syvanen T, Yngve A, Salumets A, Nilsson TK: Variations in folate pathway genes are associated with unexplained female infertility. Fertil Steril. 2010, 94: 130-137. Jauniaux E, Watson A, Burton G: Evaluation of respiratory gases and acid-base gradients in human fetal fluids and uteroplacental tissue between 7 and 16 weeks' gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001, 184: 998-1003. Watson AL, Skepper JN, Jauniaux E, Burton GJ: Susceptibility of human placental syncytiotrophoblastic mitochondria to oxygen-mediated damage in relation to gestational age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998, 83: 1697-1705. Watson AL, Skepper JN, Jauniaux E, Burton GJ: Changes in concentration, localization and activity of catalase within the human placenta during early gestation. Placenta. 1998, 19: 27-34. Jauniaux E, Watson AL, Hempstock J, Bao YP, Skepper JN, Burton GJ: Onset of maternal arterial blood flow and placental oxidative stress. A possible factor in human early pregnancy failure. Am J Pathol. 2000, 157: 2111-2122. Lunghi L, Ferretti ME, Medici S, Biondi C, Vesce F: Control of human trophoblast function. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2007, 5: 6- Nakamura M, Sekizawa A, Purwosunu Y, Okazaki S, Farina A, Wibowo N, Shimizu H, Okai T: Cellular mRNA expressions of anti-oxidant factors in the blood of preeclamptic women. Prenat Diagn. 2009, 29: 691-696. Hempstock J, Jauniaux E, Greenwold N, Burton GJ: The contribution of placental oxidative stress to early pregnancy failure. Hum Pathol. 2003, 34: 1265-1275. Jauniaux E, Gulbis B, Burton GJ: Physiological implications of the materno-fetal oxygen gradient in human early pregnancy. Reprod Biomed Online. 2003, 7: 250-253. Quenby S, Nik H, Innes B, Lash G, Turner M, Drury J, Bulmer J: Uterine natural killer cells and angiogenesis in recurrent reproductive failure. Hum Reprod. 2009, 24: 45-54. Burton GJ, Hempstock J, Jauniaux E: Oxygen, early embryonic metabolism and free radical-mediated embryopathies. Reprod Biomed Online. 2003, 6: 84-96. Gupta S, Agarwal A, Banerjee J, Alvarez JG: The role of oxidative stress in spontaneous abortion and recurrent pregnancy loss: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2007, 62: 335-347. quiz 353-334 Toy H, Camuzcuoglu H, Camuzcuoglu A, Celik H, Aksoy N: Decreased serum prolidase activity and increased oxidative stress in early pregnancy loss. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2010, 69: 122-127. Toy H, Camuzcuoglu H, Celik H, Erel O, Aksoy N: Assessment of serum paraoxonase and arylesterase activities in early pregnancy failure. Swiss Med Wkly. 2009, 139: 76-81. Liu AX, He WH, Yin LJ, Lv PP, Zhang Y, Sheng JZ, Leung PC, Huang HF: Sustained endoplasmic reticulum stress as a cofactor of oxidative stress in decidual cells from patients with early pregnancy loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011, 96: E493-E497. Zachara BA, Dobrzynski W, Trafikowska U, Szymanski W: Blood selenium and glutathione peroxidases in miscarriage. BJOG. 2001, 108: 244-247. Al-Kunani AS, Knight R, Haswell SJ, Thompson JW, Lindow SW: The selenium status of women with a history of recurrent miscarriage. BJOG. 2001, 108: 1094-1097. Rumbold A, Duley L, Crowther C, Haslam R: Antioxidants for preventing pre-eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005, 4: CD004227- Quenby SM, Farquharson RG: Predicting recurring miscarriage: what is important?. Obstet Gynecol. 1993, 82: 132-138. Rai R, Regan L: Recurrent miscarriage. Lancet. 2006, 368: 601-611. Poston L, Raijmakers MT: Trophoblast oxidative stress, antioxidants and pregnancy outcome--a review. Placenta. 2004, 25 (Suppl A): S72-S78. Lash GE, Schiessl B, Kirkley M, Innes BA, Cooper A, Searle RF, Robson SC, Bulmer JN: Expression of angiogenic growth factors by uterine natural killer cells during early pregnancy. J Leukoc Biol. 2006, 80: 572-580. Hanna J, Goldman-Wohl D, Hamani Y, Avraham I, Greenfield C, Natanson-Yaron S, Prus D, Cohen-Daniel L, Arnon TI, Manaster I, et al: Decidual NK cells regulate key developmental processes at the human fetal-maternal interface. Nat Med. 2006, 12: 1065-1074. Simsek M, Naziroglu M, Simsek H, Cay M, Aksakal M, Kumru S: Blood plasma levels of lipoperoxides, glutathione peroxidase, beta carotene, vitamin A and E in women with habitual abortion. Cell Biochem Funct. 1998, 16: 227-231. Miller H, Wilson R, Jenkins C, MacLean MA, Roberts J, Walker JJ: Glutathione levels and miscarriage. Fertil Steril. 2000, 74: 1257-1258. El-Far M, El-Sayed IH, El-Motwally Ael G, Hashem IA, Bakry N: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha and oxidant status are essential participating factors in unexplained recurrent spontaneous abortions. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2007, 45: 879-883. Tempfer C, Unfried G, Zeillinger R, Hefler L, Nagele F, Huber JC: Endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphism in women with idiopathic recurrent miscarriage. Hum Reprod. 2001, 16: 1644-1647. Sata F, Yamada H, Kondo T, Gong Y, Tozaki S, Kobashi G, Kato EH, Fujimoto S, Kishi R: Glutathione S-transferase M1 and T1 polymorphisms and the risk of recurrent pregnancy loss. Mol Hum Reprod. 2003, 9: 165-169. Sata F, Yamada H, Yamada A, Kato EH, Kataoka S, Saijo Y, Kondo T, Tamaki J, Minakami H, Kishi R: A polymorphism in the CYP17 gene relates to the risk of recurrent pregnancy loss. Mol Hum Reprod. 2003, 9: 725-728. Cotgreave IA: N-acetylcysteine: pharmacological considerations and experimental and clinical applications. Adv Pharmacol. 1997, 38: 205-227. Kelly GS: Clinical applications of N-acetylcysteine. Altern Med Rev. 1998, 3: 114-127. Xu DX, Chen YH, Wang H, Zhao L, Wang JP, Wei W: Effect of N-acetylcysteine on lipopolysaccharide-induced intra-uterine fetal death and intra-uterine growth retardation in mice. Toxicol Sci. 2005, 88: 525-533. Amin AF, Shaaban OM, Bediawy MA: N-acetyl cysteine for treatment of recurrent unexplained pregnancy loss. Reprod Biomed Online. 2008, 17: 722-726. Lappas M, Permezel M, Rice GE: N-Acetyl-cysteine inhibits phospholipid metabolism, proinflammatory cytokine release, protease activity, and nuclear factor-kappaB deoxyribonucleic acid-binding activity in human fetal membranes in vitro. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003, 88: 1723-1729. Aluigi MG, De Flora S, D'Agostini F, Albini A, Fassina G: Antiapoptotic and antigenotoxic effects of N-acetylcysteine in human cells of endothelial origin. Anticancer Res. 2000, 20: 3183-3187. Gupta S, Aziz N, Sekhon L, Agarwal R, Mansour G, Li J, Agarwal A: Lipid peroxidation and antioxidant status in preeclampsia: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2009, 64: 750-759. Reslan OM, Khalil RA: Molecular and vascular targets in the pathogenesis and management of the hypertension associated with preeclampsia. Cardiovasc Hematol Agents Med Chem. 2010, 8: 204-226. Roberts JM, Pearson GD, Cutler JA, Lindheimer MD: Summary of the NHLBI Working Group on Research on Hypertension During Pregnancy. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2003, 22: 109-127. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy: Report of the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000, 183: S1-S22. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: Practice bulletin No.33: Diagnosis and management of preeclampsia and eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2002, 99: 159-167. Khalil RA, Granger JP: Vascular mechanisms of increased arterial pressure in preeclampsia: lessons from animal models. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2002, 283: R29-R45. Burton GJ, Jauniaux E: Placental oxidative stress: from miscarriage to preeclampsia. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2004, 11: 342-352. Redman CW, Sargent IL: Placental stress and pre-eclampsia: a revised view. Placenta. 2009, 30 (Suppl A): S38-S42. Burton GJ, Yung HW, Cindrova-Davies T, Charnock-Jones DS: Placental endoplasmic reticulum stress and oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of unexplained intrauterine growth restriction and early onset preeclampsia. Placenta. 2009, 30 (Suppl A): S43-S48. Kharfi A, Giguere Y, De Grandpre P, Moutquin JM, Forest JC: Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) may be a marker of systemic oxidative stress in normotensive and preeclamptic term pregnancies. Clin Biochem. 2005, 38: 717-721. Roberts JM, Cooper DW: Pathogenesis and genetics of pre-eclampsia. Lancet. 2001, 357: 53-56. Granger JP, Alexander BT, Llinas MT, Bennett WA, Khalil RA: Pathophysiology of preeclampsia: linking placental ischemia/hypoxia with microvascular dysfunction. Microcirculation. 2002, 9: 147-160. Hung TH, Skepper JN, Burton GJ: In vitro ischemia-reperfusion injury in term human placenta as a model for oxidative stress in pathological pregnancies. Am J Pathol. 2001, 159: 1031-1043. Burton GJ, Yung HW: Endoplasmic reticulum stress in the pathogenesis of early-onset pre-eclampsia. Pregnancy Hypertens. 2011, 1: 72-78. Sharp AN, Heazell AE, Crocker IP, Mor G: Placental apoptosis in health and disease. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2010, 64: 159-169. Aris A, Benali S, Ouellet A, Moutquin JM, Leblanc S: Potential biomarkers of preeclampsia: inverse correlation between hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide early in maternal circulation and at term in placenta of women with preeclampsia. Placenta. 2009, 30: 342-347. Sharma JB, Sharma A, Bahadur A, Vimala N, Satyam A, Mittal S: Oxidative stress markers and antioxidant levels in normal pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2006, 94: 23-27. Haque SK, Siddiqui MU, Islam N, Moin S: Erythrocyte markers of oxidative stress in higher age-group preeclamptic and normal pregnant mothers. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2010, 29: 69-81. Padmini E, Lavanya S, Uthra V: Preeclamptic placental stress and over expression of mitochondrial HSP70. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2009, 47: 1073-1080. Tsukimori K, Komatsu H, Fukushima K, Kaku T, Nakano H, Wake N: Inhibition of nitric oxide synthetase at mid-gestation in rats is associated with increases in arterial pressure, serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and placental apoptosis. Am J Hypertens. 2008, 21: 477-481. Bhatnagar S, Bhattacharjee J, Vaid M, Madan T, Trivedi SS, Sarma PU: Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) gene polymorphism in pre-eclampsia: a pilot study in North India. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2007, 47: 477-482. Vural P: Nitric oxide/endothelin-1 in preeclampsia. Clin Chim Acta. 2002, 317: 65-70. Shaamash AH, Elsnosy ED, Makhlouf AM, Zakhari MM, Ibrahim OA: HM EL-d: Maternal and fetal serum nitric oxide (NO) concentrations in normal pregnancy, pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2000, 68: 207-214. Tsukimori K, Fukushima K, Tsushima A, Nakano H: Generation of reactive oxygen species by neutrophils and endothelial cell injury in normal and preeclamptic pregnancies. Hypertension. 2005, 46: 696-700. Cindrova-Davies T: Gabor Than Award Lecture 2008: pre-eclampsia - from placental oxidative stress to maternal endothelial dysfunction. Placenta. 2009, 30 (Suppl A): S55-S65. Levine RJ, Maynard SE, Qian C, Lim KH, England LJ, Yu KF, Schisterman EF, Thadhani R, Sachs BP, Epstein FH, et al: Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia. N Engl J Med. 2004, 350: 672-683. Ahmed A, Rahman M, Zhang X, Acevedo CH, Nijjar S, Rushton I, Bussolati B, St John J: Induction of placental heme oxygenase-1 is protective against TNFalpha-induced cytotoxicity and promotes vessel relaxation. Mol Med. 2000, 6: 391-409. De Marco CS, Caniggia I: Mechanisms of oxygen sensing in human trophoblast cells. Placenta. 2002, 23: S58-S68. Li H, Gu B, Zhang Y, Lewis DF, Wang Y: Hypoxia-induced increase in soluble Flt-1 production correlates with enhanced oxidative stress in trophoblast cells from the human placenta. Placenta. 2005, 26: 210-217. Farina A, Sekizawa A, De Sanctis P, Purwosunu Y, Okai T, Cha DH, Kang JH, Vicenzi C, Tempesta A, Wibowo N, et al: Gene expression in chorionic villous samples at 11 weeks' gestation from women destined to develop preeclampsia. Prenat Diagn. 2008, 28: 956-961. Griendling KK, Sorescu D, Ushio-Fukai M: NAD(P)H oxidase: role in cardiovascular biology and disease. Circ Res. 2000, 86: 494-501. Wallekut G, Homuth V, Fischer T, Linschau C, Horstkamp B, Jüpner A, VBaur E, Nissen E, Vetter K, Neichel D, et al: Patients with preeclampsia develop agonistic autoantibodies against the angiotensin AT1 receptor. J Clin Invest. 1999, 103: 945-952. Dechend R, Viedt C, Muller DN, Ugele B, Brandes RP, Wallukat G, Park JK, Janke J, Barta P, Theuer J, et al: AT1 receptor agonistic antibodies from preeclamptic patients stimulate NADPH oxidase. Circulation. 2003, 107: 1632-1639. Raijmakers MT, Peters WH, Steegers EA, Poston L: NAD(P)H oxidase associated superoxide production in human placenta from normotensive and pre-eclamptic women. Placenta. 2004, 25 (Suppl A): S85-S89. Griendling KK, Sorescu D, Lassegue B, Ushio-Fukai M: Modulation of protein kinase activity and gene expression by reactive oxygen species and their role in vascular physiology and pathophysiology. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000, 20: 2175-2183. Costa LG, Vitalone A, Cole TB, Furlong CE: Modulation of paraoxonase (PON1) activity. Biochem Pharmacol. 2005, 69: 541-550. Baker AM, Klein RL, Haeri S, Moss KL, Boggess KA: Association of Midgestational Paraoxonase 1 activity with pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia. Am J Perinatol. 2010, 27: 205-210. Kumru S, Aydin S, Gursu MF, Ozcan Z: Changes of serum paraoxonase (an HDL-cholesterol-associated lipophilic antioxidant) and arylesterase activities in severe preeclamptic women. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2004, 114: 177-181. Uzun H, Benian A, Madazli R, Topcuoglu MA, Aydin S, Albayrak M: Circulating oxidized low-density lipoprotein and paraoxonase activity in preeclampsia. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2005, 60: 195-200. Walsh SW: Eicosanoids in preeclampsia. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2004, 70: 223-232. Klemmensen A, Tabor A, Osterdal ML, Knudsen VK, Halldorsson TI, Mikkelsen TB, Olsen SF: Intake of vitamin C and E in pregnancy and risk of pre-eclampsia: prospective study among 57 346 women. BJOG. 2009, 116: 964-974. Bodnar LM, Tang G, Ness RB, Harger G, Roberts JM: Periconceptional multivitamin use reduces the risk of preeclampsia. Am J Epidemiol. 2006, 164: 470-477. Catov JM, Nohr EA, Bodnar LM, Knudson VK, Olsen SF, Olsen J: Association of periconceptional multivitamin use with reduced risk of preeclampsia among normal-weight women in the Danish National Birth Cohort. Am J Epidemiol. 2009, 169: 1304-1311. Poston L, Briley AL, Seed PT, Kelly FJ, Shennan AH: Vitamin C and vitamin E in pregnant women at risk for pre-eclampsia (VIP trial): randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2006, 367: 1145-1154. Roberts JM, Myatt L, Spong CY, Thom EA, Hauth JC, Leveno KJ, Pearson GD, Wapner RJ, Varner MW, Thorp JM, et al: Vitamins C and E to prevent complications of pregnancy-associated hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2010, 362: 1282-1291. Xu H, Perez-Cuevas R, Xiong X, Reyes H, Roy C, Julien P, Smith G, von Dadelszen P, Leduc L, Audibert F, et al: An international trial of antioxidants in the prevention of preeclampsia (INTAPP). Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2010, 202: 239 e231-239 e210. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: Practice Bulletin No. 12: Intrauterine Growth Restriction. Obstet Gynecol. 2000, 95: 1-3. Scifres CM, Nelson DM: Intrauterine growth restriction, human placental development and trophoblast cell death. J Physiol. 2009, 587: 3453-3458. Biri A, Bozkurt N, Turp A, Kavutcu M, Himmetoglu O, Durak I: Role of oxidative stress in intrauterine growth restriction. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2007, 64: 187-192. Karowicz-Bilinska A: Lipid peroxides concentration in women with intrauterine growth restriction. Ginekol Pol. 2004, 75: 6-9. Potdar N, Singh R, Mistry V, Evans MD, Farmer PB, Konje JC, Cooke MS: First-trimester increase in oxidative stress and risk of small-for-gestational-age fetus. BJOG. 2009, 116: 637-642. Levy R, Smith SD, Chandler K, Sadovsky Y, Nelson DM: Apoptosis in human cultured trophoblasts is enhanced by hypoxia and diminished by epidermal growth factor. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2000, 278: C982-C988. Levy R, Smith SD, Yusuf K, Huettner PC, Kraus FT, Sadovsky Y, Nelson DM: Trophoblast apoptosis from pregnancies complicated by fetal growth restriction is associated with enhanced p53 expression. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002, 186: 1056-1061. Heazell AE, Lacey HA, Jones CJ, Huppertz B, Baker PN, Crocker IP: Effects of oxygen on cell turnover and expression of regulators of apoptosis in human placental trophoblast. Placenta. 2008, 29: 175-186. Hung TH, Burton GJ: Hypoxia and reoxygenation: a possible mechanism for placental oxidative stress in preeclampsia. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol. 2006, 45: 189-200. Yung HW, Calabrese S, Hynx D, Hemmings BA, Cetin I, Charnock-Jones DS, Burton GJ: Evidence of placental translation inhibition and endoplasmic reticulum stress in the etiology of human intrauterine growth restriction. Am J Pathol. 2008, 173: 451-462. Hafner E, Metzenbauer M, Hofinger D, Munkel M, Gassner R, Schuchter K, Dillinger-Paller B, Philipp K: Placental growth from the first to the second trimester of pregnancy in SGA-foetuses and pre-eclamptic pregnancies compared to normal foetuses. Placenta. 2003, 24: 336-342. Arioz DT, Camuzcuoglu H, Toy H, Kurt S, Celik H, Aksoy N: Serum prolidase activity and oxidative status in patients with stage I endometrial cancer. Int J Gynecol Canc. 2009, 19: 1244-1247. Romero R, Espinoza J, Kusanovic JP, Gotsch F, Hassan S, Erez O, Chaiworapongsa T, Mazor M: The preterm parturition syndrome. BJOG. 2006, 113 (Suppl 3): 17-42. Romero R, Gomez R, Mazor M, Ghezzi F, Yoon BH: The preterm labor syndrome. Preterm Labor. Edited by: Elder MG, Romero R, Lamont RF. 1997, New York: Churchill Livingstone, 29-49. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Edited by: Behrman RE, Bulter AS. 2007, Washington DC: National Academies Press (US) Norman JE, Bollapragada S, Yuan M, Nelson SM: Inflammatory pathways in the mechanism of parturition. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2007, 7 (Suppl 1): S7- Challis JR, Smith SK: Fetal endocrine signals and preterm labor. Biol Neonate. 2001, 79: 163-167. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists: Obstetrics. Precis: An Update in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2010, US: American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists: American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists, 84-91. 4 Haddad R, Tromp G, Kuivaniemi H, Chaiworapongsa T, Kim YM, Mazor M, Romero R: Human spontaneous labor without histologic chorioamnionitis is characterized by an acute inflammation gene expression signature. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006, 195 (394): e391-324. Khan RN, Matharoo-Ball B, Shaw RW: Antioxidant enzyme expression, lipid peroxidation, and protein oxidation in human myometrium with parturition. Reprod Sci. 2010, 17: 78-84. Mustafa MD, Pathak R, Ahmed T, Ahmed RS, Tripathi AK, Guleria K, Banerjee BD: Association of glutathione S-transferase M1 and T1 gene polymorphisms and oxidative stress markers in preterm labor. Clin Biochem. 2010, 43: 1124-1128. Pathak R, Suke SG, Ahmed T, Ahmed RS, Tripathi AK, Guleria K, Sharma CS, Makhijani SD, Banerjee BD: Organochlorine pesticide residue levels and oxidative stress in preterm delivery cases. Hum Exp Toxicol. 2010, 29: 351-358. Hong YC, Lee KH, Yi CH, Ha EH, Christiani DC: Genetic susceptibility of term pregnant women to oxidative damage. Toxicol Lett. 2002, 129: 255-262. Frosali S, Di Simplicio P, Perrone S, Di Giuseppe D, Longini M, Tanganelli D, Buonocore G: Glutathione recycling and antioxidant enzyme activities in erythrocytes of term and preterm newborns at birth. Biol Neonate. 2004, 85: 188-194. Chadha S, Jain V, Gupta I, Khullar M: Nitric oxide metabolite levels in preterm labor. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2007, 33: 710-717. Oberley LW: Mechanism of the tumor suppressive effect of MnSOD overexpression. Biomed Pharmacother. 2005, 59: 143-148. Than NG, Romero R, Tarca AL, Draghici S, Erez O, Chaiworapongsa T, Kim YM, Kim SK, Vaisbuch E, Tromp G: Mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase mRNA expression in human chorioamniotic membranes and its association with labor, inflammation, and infection. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009, 22: 1000-1013. Keelan JA, Marvin KW, Sato TA, Coleman M, McCowan LM, Mitchell MD: Cytokine abundance in placental tissues: evidence of inflammatory activation in gestational membranes with term and preterm parturition. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999, 181: 1530-1536. Cinkaya A, Keskin HL, Buyukkagnici U, Gungor T, Keskin EA, Avsar AF, Bilge U: Maternal plasma total antioxidant status in preterm labor. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2010, 36: 1185-1188. Baker AM, Haeri S, Klein RL, Boggess K: Association of midgestation paraoxonase 1 activity and pregnancies complicated by preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2010, 203 (246): e241-e244. Lee JW, Davis JM: Future applications of antioxidants in premature infants. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2011, 23: 161-166. Rayman MP, Wijnen H, Vader H, Kooistra L, Pop V: Maternal selenium status during early gestation and risk for preterm birth. CMAJ. 2011, 183: 549-555. Temma-Asano K, Tskitishvili E, Kanagawa T, Tomimatsu T, Tsutsui T, Kimura T, Chang YS, Nakamura T, Nakai Y, Shimoya K: Effects of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, a major lipid peroxidation-derived aldehyde, and N-acetylcysteine on the cyclooxygenase-2 expression in human uterine myometrium. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2011, 72: 37-42. Hauth JC, Clifton RG, Roberts JM, Spong CY, Myatt L, Leveno KJ, Pearson GD, Varner MW, Thorp JM, Mercer BM, et al: Vitamin C and E supplementation to prevent spontaneous preterm birth: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2010, 116: 653-658. Rumbold AR, Crowther CA, Haslam RR, Dekker GA, Robinson JS: Vitamins C and E and the risks of preeclampsia and perinatal complications. N Engl J Med. 2006, 354: 1796-1806. Herrero-Mercado M, Waliszewski SM, Caba M, Martinez-Valenzuela C, Gomez Arroyo S, Villalobos Pietrini R, Cantu Martinez PC, Hernandez-Chalate F: Organochlorine pesticide gradient levels among maternal adipose tissue, maternal blood serum and umbilical blood serum. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 2011, 86: 289-293. Rotterdam EA-SPcwg: Revised 2003 consensus on diagnostic criteria and long-term health risks related to polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Hum Reprod (Oxford, England). 2004, 19: 41-47. Metwally M, Li TC, Ledger WL: The impact of obesity on female reproductive function. Obes Rev. 2007, 8: 515-523. Abenhaim HA, Kinch RA, Morin L, Benjamin A, Usher R: Effect of prepregnancy body mass index categories on obstetrical and neonatal outcomes. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2007, 275: 39-43. Igosheva N, Abramov AY, Poston L, Eckert JJ, Fleming TP, Duchen MR, McConnell J: Maternal diet-induced obesity alters mitochondrial activity and redox status in mouse oocytes and zygotes. PLoS One. 2010, 5: e10074- Bloomer RJ, Fisher-Wellman KH: Systemic oxidative stress is increased to a greater degree in young, obese women following consumption of a high fat meal. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2009, 2: 19-25. Mistry HD, Williams PJ: The importance of antioxidant micronutrients in pregnancy. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2011, 2011: 841749- Jarvie E, Hauguel-de-Mouzon S, Nelson SM, Sattar N, Catalano PM, Freeman DJ: Lipotoxicity in obese pregnancy and its potential role in adverse pregnancy outcome and obesity in the offspring. Clin Sci (Lond). 2010, 119: 123-129. Basu S, Haghiac M, Surace P, Challier JC, Guerre-Millo M, Singh K, Waters T, Minium J, Presley L, Catalano PM, et al: Pregravid obesity associates with increased maternal endotoxemia and metabolic inflammation. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2011, 19: 476-482. DiBaise JK, Zhang H, Crowell MD, Krajmalnik-Brown R, Decker GA, Rittmann BE: Gut microbiota and its possible relationship with obesity. Mayo Clin Proc. 2008, 83: 460-469. Robker RL, Akison LK, Bennett BD, Thrupp PN, Chura LR, Russell DL, Lane M, Norman RJ: Obese women exhibit differences in ovarian metabolites, hormones, and gene expression compared with moderate-weight women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009, 94: 1533-1540. Higashi Y, Sasaki S, Nakagawa K, Kimura M, Noma K, Hara K, Matsuura H, Goto C, Oshima T, Chayama K, et al: Low body mass index is a risk factor for impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation in humans: role of nitric oxide and oxidative stress. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003, 42: 256-263. Weisberg SP, McCann D, Desai M, Rosenbaum M, Leibel RL, Ferrante AW: Obesity is associated with macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue. J Clin Invest. 2003, 112: 1796-1808. Anderson K, Nisenblat V, Norman R: Lifestyle factors in people seeking infertility treatment - A review. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2010, 50: 8-20. Franco Mdo C, Dantas AP, Akamine EH, Kawamoto EM, Fortes ZB, Scavone C, Tostes RC, Carvalho MH, Nigro D: Enhanced oxidative stress as a potential mechanism underlying the programming of hypertension in utero. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2002, 40: 501-509. Bernal AB, Vickers MH, Hampton MB, Poynton RA, Sloboda DM: Maternal undernutrition significantly impacts ovarian follicle number and increases ovarian oxidative stress in adult rat offspring. PLoS One. 2010, 5: e15558- Fisher-Wellman K, Bell HK, Bloomer RJ: Oxidative stress and antioxidant defense mechanisms linked to exercise during cardiopulmonary and metabolic disorders. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2009, 2: 43-51. Fisher-Wellman K, Bloomer RJ: Acute exercise and oxidative stress: a 30 year history. Dyn Med. 2009, 8: 1- Leelarungrayub D, Saidee K, Pothongsunun P, Pratanaphon S, YanKai A, Bloomer RJ: Six weeks of aerobic dance exercise improves blood oxidative stress status and increases interleukin-2 in previously sedentary women. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2011, 15: 355-362. Wells PG, Bhuller Y, Chen CS, Jeng W, Kasapinovic S, Kennedy JC, Kim PM, Laposa RR, McCallum GP, Nicol CJ, et al: Molecular and biochemical mechanisms in teratogenesis involving reactive oxygen species. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2005, 207: 354-366. Huang J, Okuka M, McLean M, Keefe DL, Liu L: Effects of cigarette smoke on fertilization and embryo development in vivo. Fertil Steril. 2009, 92: 1456-1465. Kumar S: Occupational, environmental and lifestyle factors associated with spontaneous abortion. Reprod Sci. 2011, 18: 915-930. Ornoy A: Embryonic oxidative stress as a mechanism of teratogenesis with special emphasis on diabetic embryopathy. Reprod Toxicol. 2007, 24: 31-41. Valavanidis A, Vlachogianni T, Fiotakis K: Tobacco smoke: involvement of reactive oxygen species and stable free radicals in mechanisms of oxidative damage, carcinogenesis and synergistic effects with other respirable particles. Int J Environ Res Publ Health. 2009, 6: 445-462. Werler MM: Teratogen update: smoking and reproductive outcomes. Teratology. 1997, 55: 382-388. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: Smoking and reproductive health. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 1993, 43: 75-81. Chelchowska M, Ambroszkiewicz J, Gajewska J, Laskowska-Klita T, Leibschang J: The effect of tobacco smoking during pregnancy on plasma oxidant and antioxidant status in mother and newborn. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2011, 155: 132-136. Northrop-Clewes CA, Thurnham DI: Monitoring micronutrients in cigarette smokers. Clin Chim Acta. 2007, 377: 14-38. Tiboni GM, Bucciarelli T, Giampietro F, Sulpizio M, Di Ilio C: Influence of cigarette smoking on vitamin E, vitamin A, beta-carotene and lycopene concentrations in human pre-ovulatory follicular fluid. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 2004, 17: 389-393. Deng XS, Deitrich RA: Ethanol metabolism and effects: nitric oxide and its interaction. Curr Clin Pharmacol. 2007, 2: 145-153. Toda N, Ayajiki K: Vascular actions of nitric oxide as affected by exposure to alcohol. Alcohol Alcohol. 2010, 45: 347-355. Gauthier TW, Kable JA, Burwell L, Coles CD, Brown LA: Maternal alcohol use during pregnancy causes systemic oxidation of the glutathione redox system. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2010, 34: 123-130. Sun AY, Ingelman-Sundberg M, Neve E, Matsumoto H, Nishitani Y, Minowa Y, Fukui Y, Bailey SM, Patel VB, Cunningham CC, et al: Ethanol and oxidative stress. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2001, 25: 237S-243S. Zima T, Fialova L, Mestek O, Janebova M, Crkovska J, Malbohan I, Stipek S, Mikulikova L, Popov P: Oxidative stress, metabolism of ethanol and alcohol-related diseases. J Biomed Sci. 2001, 8: 59-70. Spiteller G: Peroxyl radicals are essential reagents in the oxidation steps of the Maillard reaction leading to generation of advanced glycation end products. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008, 1126: 128-133. Manzocco L, Calligaris S, Mastrocola D, Nicoli MC, Lerici CR: Review of non-enzymatic browning and antioxidant capacity in processed foods. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2001, 11: 340-346. Yan SD, Schmidt AM, Anderson GM, Zhang J, Brett J, Zou YS, Pinsky D, Stern D: Enhanced cellular oxidant stress by the interaction of advanced glycation end products with their receptors/binding proteins. J Biol Chem. 1994, 269: 9889-9897. Bierhaus A, Hofmann MA, Ziegler R, Nawroth PP: AGEs and their interaction with AGE-receptors in vascular disease and diabetes mellitus. I. The AGE concept. Cardiovasc Res. 1998, 37: 586-600. Kislinger T, Fu C, Huber B, Qu W, Taguchi A, Du Yan S, Hofmann M, Yan SF, Pischetsrieder M, Stern D, et al: N(epsilon)-(carboxymethyl)lysine adducts of proteins are ligands for receptor for advanced glycation end products that activate cell signaling pathways and modulate gene expression. J Biol Chem. 1999, 274: 31740-31749. Basta G, Lazzerini G, Massaro M, Simoncini T, Tanganelli P, Fu C, Kislinger T, Stern DM, Schmidt AM, De Caterina R: Advanced glycation end products activate endothelium through signal-transduction receptor RAGE: a mechanism for amplification of inflammatory responses. Circulation. 2002, 105: 816-822. Haslbeck KM, Neundorfer B, Schlotzer-Schrehardtt U, Bierhaus A, Schleicher E, Pauli E, Haslbeck M, Hecht M, Nawroth P, Heuss D: Activation of the RAGE pathway: a general mechanism in the pathogenesis of polyneuropathies?. Neurol Res. 2007, 29: 103-110. Kovacic P, Somanathan R: Cell signaling and receptors in toxicity of advanced glycation end products (AGEs): alpha-dicarbonyls, radicals, oxidative stress and antioxidants. J Recept Signal Transduct Res. 2011, 31: 332-339. Alikhani M, Maclellan CM, Raptis M, Vora S, Trackman PC, Graves DT: Advanced glycation end products induce apoptosis in fibroblasts through activation of ROS, MAP kinases, and the FOXO1 transcription factor. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2007, 292: C850-C856. Chen BH, Jiang DY, Tang LS: Advanced glycation end-products induce apoptosis involving the signaling pathways of oxidative stress in bovine retinal pericytes. Life Sci. 2006, 79: 1040-1048. Kalousova M, Zima T, Popov P, Spacek P, Braun M, Soukupova J, Pelinkova K, Kientsch-Engel R: Advanced glycation end-products in patients with chronic alcohol misuse. Alcohol Alcohol. 2004, 39: 316-320. Khalifah RG, Baynes JW, Hudson BG: Amadorins: novel post-Amadori inhibitors of advanced glycation reactions. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999, 257: 251-258. Stracke H, Hammes HP, Werkmann D, Mavrakis K, Bitsch I, Netzel M, Geyer J, Kopcke W, Sauerland C, Bretzel RG, et al: Efficacy of benfotiamine versus thiamine on function and glycation products of peripheral nerves in diabetic rats. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2001, 109: 330-336. Miyata T, Kurokawa K, van Ypersele de Strihou C: Relevance of oxidative and carbonyl stress to long-term uremic complications. Kidney Int Suppl. 2000, 76: S120-S125. Al-Abed Y, Mitsuhashi T, Li H, Lawson JA, FitzGerald GA, Founds H, Donnelly T, Cerami A, Ulrich P, Bucala R: Inhibition of advanced glycation endproduct formation by acetaldehyde: role in the cardioprotective effect of ethanol. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999, 96: 2385-2390. Kotch LE, Chen SY, Sulik KK: Ethanol-induced teratogenesis: free radical damage as a possible mechanism. Teratology. 1995, 52: 128-136. Heaton MB, Paiva M, Mayer J, Miller R: Ethanol-mediated generation of reactive oxygen species in developing rat cerebellum. Neurosci Lett. 2002, 334: 83-86. Wentzel P, Rydberg U, Eriksson UJ: Antioxidative treatment diminishes ethanol-induced congenital malformations in the rat. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2006, 30: 1752-1760. Tolstrup JS, Kjaer SK, Holst C, Sharif H, Munk C, Osler M, Schmidt L, Andersen AM, Gronbaek M: Alcohol use as predictor for infertility in a representative population of Danish women. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2003, 82: 744-749. Kay HH, Grindle KM, Magness RR: Ethanol exposure induces oxidative stress and impairs nitric oxide availability in the human placental villi: a possible mechanism of toxicity. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000, 182: 682-688. Cooper RG, Magwere T: Nitric oxide-mediated pathogenesis during nicotine and alcohol consumption. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2008, 52: 11-18. Chan GC, Hinds TR, Impey S, Storm DR: Hippocampal neurotoxicity of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol. J Neurosci. 1998, 18: 5322-5332. Battista N, Pasquariello N, Di Tommaso M, Maccarrone M: Interplay between endocannabinoids, steroids and cytokines in the control of human reproduction. J Neuroendocrinol. 2008, 20 (Suppl 1): 82-89. Schuel H, Burkman LJ, Lippes J, Crickard K, Forester E, Piomelli D, Giuffrida A: N-Acylethanolamines in human reproductive fluids. Chem Phys Lipids. 2002, 121: 211-227. Park B, McPartland JM, Glass M: Cannabis, cannabinoids and reproduction. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2004, 70: 189-197. Fride E: Multiple roles for the endocannabinoid system during the earliest stages of life: pre- and postnatal development. J Neuroendocrinol. 2008, 20 (Suppl 1): 75-81. Mueller BA, Daling JR, Weiss NS, Moore DE: Recreational drug use and the risk of primary infertility. Epidemiology. 1990, 1: 195-200. Bari M, Battista N, Pirazzi V, Maccarrone M: The manifold actions of endocannabinoids on female and male reproductive events. Front Biosci. 2011, 16: 498-516. Kovacic P, Jacintho JD: Reproductive toxins: pervasive theme of oxidative stress and electron transfer. Curr Med Chem. 2001, 8: 863-892. Kovacic P, Sacman A, Wu-Weis M: Nephrotoxins: widespread role of oxidative stress and electron transfer. Curr Med Chem. 2002, 9: 823-847. Kovacic P, Jacintho JD: Mechanisms of carcinogenesis: focus on oxidative stress and electron transfer. Curr Med Chem. 2001, 8: 773-796. Marimatsu S, Watanabe K, Matsunaga T, Yamamoto I, Imaoka S, Funae Y: Cytochrome P450 isozymes involved in the oxidative metabolism of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol by liver microsomes of adult female rats. Drug Metab Dispos. 1992, 20: 79-83. Kovacic P, Osuna JA: Mechanisms of anti-cancer agents: emphasis on oxidative stress and electron transfer. Curr Pharm Des. 2000, 6: 277-309. Sarafian TA, Magallanes JA, Shau H, Tashkin D, Roth MD: Oxidative stress produced by marijuana smoke. An adverse effect enhanced by cannabinoids. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1999, 20: 1286-1293. Richardson GA, Day NL, McGauhey PJ: The impact of prenatal marijuana and cocaine use on the infant and child. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1993, 36: 302-318. Zimmerman EF, Potturi RB, Resnick E, Fisher JE: Role of oxygen free radicals in cocaine-induced vascular disruption in mice. Teratology. 1994, 49: 192-201. Hoyme HE, Jones KL, Dixon SD, Jewett T, Hanson JW, Robinson LK, Msall ME, Allanson JE: Prenatal cocaine exposure and fetal vascular disruption. Pediatrics. 1990, 85: 743-747. Lloyd RV, Shuster L, Mason RP: Reexamination of the microsomal transformation of N-hydroxynorcocaine to norcocaine nitroxide. Mol Pharmacol. 1993, 43: 645-648. Kovacic P: Role of oxidative metabolites of cocaine in toxicity and addiction: oxidative stress and electron transfer. Med Hypotheses. 2005, 64: 350-356. Goldstein S, Samuni A, Merenyi G: Reactions of nitric oxide, peroxynitrite, and carbonate radicals with nitroxides and their corresponding oxoammonium cations. Chem Res Toxicol. 2004, 17: 250-257. Lipton JW, Gyawali S, Borys ED, Koprich JB, Ptaszny M, McGuire SO: Prenatal cocaine administration increases glutathione and alpha-tocopherol oxidation in fetal rat brain. Brain Res Dev Brain Res. 2003, 147: 77-84. Lee YW, Hennig B, Fiala M, Kim KS, Toborek M: Cocaine activates redox-regulated transcription factors and induces TNF-alpha expression in human brain endothelial cells. Brain Res. 2001, 920: 125-133. Jacintho JD, Kovacic P: Neurotransmission and neurotoxicity by nitric oxide, catecholamines, and glutamate: unifying themes of reactive oxygen species and electron transfer. Curr Med Chem. 2003, 10: 2693-2703. Sharan N, Chong VZ, Nair VD, Mishra RK, Hayes RJ, Gardner EL: Cocaine treatment increases expression of a 40 kDa catecholamine-regulated protein in discrete brain regions. Synapse. 2003, 47: 33-44. Zhang L, Xiao Y, He J: Cocaine and apoptosis in myocardial cells. Anat Rec. 1999, 257: 208-216. Zaragoza A, Diez-Fernandez C, Alvarez AM, Andres D, Cascales M: Mitochondrial involvement in cocaine-treated rat hepatocytes: effect of N-acetylcysteine and deferoxamine. Br J Pharmacol. 2001, 132: 1063-1070. Woods JR, Plessinger MA, Miller RK: Vitamins C and E: missing links in preventing preterm premature rupture of membranes?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001, 185: 5-10. Slutker L: Risks associated with cocaine use during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1992, 79: 778-779. Fantel AG, Person RE, Burroughs-Gleim CJ, Mackler B: Direct embryotoxicity of cocaine in rats: effects on mitochondrial activity, cardiac function, and growth and development in vitro. Teratology. 1990, 42: 35-43. Floyd RA, Hensley K, Forster MJ, Kelleher-Andersson JA, Wood PL: Nitrones, their value as therapeutics and probes to understand aging. Mech Ageing Dev. 2002, 123: 1021-1031. Lee JY, Baw CK, Gupta S, Aziz N, Agarwal A: Role of Oxidative Stress in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Curr Wom Health Rev. 2010, 6: 96-107. Bagchi M, Hassoun EA, Bagchi D, Stohs SJ: Endrin-induced increases in hepatic lipid peroxidation, membrane microviscosity, and DNA damage in rats. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 1992, 23: 1-5. Abdollahi M, Ranjbar A, Shadnia S, Nikfar S, Rezaie A: Pesticides and oxidative stress: a review. Med Sci Monit. 2004, 10: RA141-RA147. Sutton P, Wallinga D, Perron J, Gottlieb M, Sayre L, Woodruff T: Reproductive health and the industrialized food system: a point of intervention for health policy. Health Aff (Millwood). 2011, 30: 888-897. Luo ZC, Liu JM, Fraser WD: Large prospective birth cohort studies on environmental contaminants and child health - goals, challenges, limitations and needs. Med Hypotheses. 2009, 74: 318-324. Organochlorines: http://www.fws.gov/pacific/ecoservices/envicon/pim/reports/contaminantinfo/contaminants.html Pathak R, Mustafa MD, Ahmed T, Ahmed RS, Tripathi AK, Guleria K, Banerjee BD: Intra uterine growth retardation: association with organochlorine pesticide residue levels and oxidative stress markers. Reprod Toxicol. 2011, 31: 534-539. Harley KG, Marks AR, Bradman A, Barr DB, Eskenazi B: DDT exposure, work in agriculture, and time to pregnancy among farmworkers in California. J Occup Environ Med. 2008, 50: 1335-1342. Petrelli G, Figa-Talamanca I, Lauria L, Mantovani A: Spontaneous abortion in spouses of greenhouse workers exposed to pesticides. Environ Health Prev Med. 2003, 8: 77-81. Meeker JD, Maity A, Missmer SA, Williams PL, Mahalingaiah S, Ehrlich S, Berry KF, Altshul L, Perry MJ, Cramer DW, et al: Serum concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls in relation to in vitro fertilization outcomes. Environ Health Perspect. 2011, 119: 1010-1016. Faroon OM, Keith S, Jones D, de Rosa C: Effects of polychlorinated biphenyls on development and reproduction. Toxicol Ind Health. 2001, 17: 63-93. Foster WG: The reproductive toxicology of Great Lakes contaminants. Environ Health Perspect. 1995, 103 (Suppl 9): 63-69. Kimbrough RD: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and human health: an update. Crit Rev Toxicol. 1995, 25: 133-163. Lione A: Polychlorinated biphenyls and reproduction. Reprod Toxicol. 1988, 2: 83-89. Longnecker MP, Klebanoff MA, Dunson DB, Guo X, Chen Z, Zhou H, Brock JW: Maternal serum level of the DDT metabolite DDE in relation to fetal loss in previous pregnancies. Environ Res. 2005, 97: 127-133. Toft G, Hagmar L, Giwercman A, Bonde JP: Epidemiological evidence on reproductive effects of persistent organochlorines in humans. Reprod Toxicol. 2004, 19: 5-26. Meeker JD, Missmer SA, Altshul L, Vitonis AF, Ryan L, Cramer DW, Hauser R: Serum and follicular fluid organochlorine concentrations among women undergoing assisted reproduction technologies. Environ Health. 2009, 8: 32- De Felip E, di Domenico A, Miniero R, Silvestroni L: Polychlorobiphenyls and other organochlorine compounds in human follicular fluid. Chemosphere. 2004, 54: 1445-1449. Younglai EV, Foster WG, Hughes EG, Trim K, Jarrell JF: Levels of environmental contaminants in human follicular fluid, serum, and seminal plasma of couples undergoing in vitro fertilization. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 2002, 43: 121-126. Mes J, Marchand L, Davies DJ: Organochlorine residues in adipose tissue of Canadians. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 1990, 45: 681-688. Polishuk ZW, Ron M, Wassermann M, Cucos S, Wassermann D, Lemesch C: Organochlorine compounds in human blood plasma and milk. Pestic Monit J. 1977, 10: 121-129. Covaci A, Jorens P, Jacquemyn Y, Schepens P: Distribution of PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in umbilical cord and maternal serum. Sci Total Environ. 2002, 298: 45-53. Nishimura H, Shiota K, Tanimura T, Mizutani T, Matsumoto M, Ueda M: Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine insecticides in human embryos and fetuses. Paediatrician. 1977, 6: 45-67. Toft G, Thulstrup AM, Jonsson BA, Pedersen HS, Ludwicki JK, Zvezday V, Bonde JP: Fetal loss and maternal serum levels of 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorbiphenyl (CB-153) and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene (p, p'-DDE) exposure: a cohort study in Greenland and two European populations. Environ Health. 2010, 9: 22- Hennig B, Slim R, Toborek M, Robertson LW: Linoleic acid amplifies polychlorinated biphenyl-mediated dysfunction of endothelial cells. J Biochem Mol Toxicol. 1999, 13: 83-91. Machala M, Drabek P, Neca J, Kolarova J, Svobodova Z: Biochemical markers for differentiation of exposures to nonplanar polychlorinated biphenyls, organochlorine pesticides, or 2,3,7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in trout liver. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 1998, 41: 107-111. Narayanan PK, Carter WO, Ganey PE, Roth RA, Voytik-Harbin SL, Robinson JP: Impairment of human neutrophil oxidative burst by polychlorinated biphenyls: inhibition of superoxide dismutase activity. J Leukoc Biol. 1998, 63: 216-224. Oakley GG, Devanaboyina U, Robertson LW, Gupta RC: Oxidative DNA damage induced by activation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): implications for PCB-induced oxidative stress in breast cancer. Chem Res Toxicol. 1996, 9: 1285-1292. Smith AG, Carthew P, Clothier B, Constantin D, Francis JE, Madra S: Synergy of iron in the toxicity and carcinogenicity of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and related chemicals. Toxicol Lett. 1995, 82–83: 945-950. Saito M: Polychlorinated biphenyls-induced lipid peroxidation as measured by thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances in liver subcellular fractions of rats. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1990, 1046: 301-308. Toborek M, Barger SW, Mattson MP, Espandiari P, Robertson LW, Hennig B: Exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls causes endothelial cell dysfunction. J Biochem Toxicol. 1995, 10: 219-226. Bagchi D, Bagchi M, Hassoun EA, Stohs SJ: In vitro and in vivo generation of reactive oxygen species, DNA damage and lactate dehydrogenase leakage by selected pesticides. Toxicology. 1995, 104: 129-140. Banerjee BD, Seth V, Ahmed RS: Pesticide-induced oxidative stress: perspectives and trends. Rev Environ Health. 2001, 16: 1-40. Delescluse C, Ledirac N, Li R, Piechocki MP, Hines RN, Gidrol X, Rahmani R: Induction of cytochrome P450 1A1 gene expression, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity by carbaryl and thiabendazole in transfected human HepG2 and lymphoblastoid cells. Biochem Pharmacol. 2001, 61: 399-407. Flessel P, Quintana PJ, Hooper K: Genetic toxicity of malathion: a review. Environ Mol Mutagen. 1993, 22: 7-17. Halliwell B: Effect of diet on cancer development: is oxidative DNA damage a biomarker?. Free Radic Biol Med. 2002, 32: 968-974. Julka D, Pal R, Gill KD: Neurotoxicity of dichlorvos: effect on antioxidant defense system in the rat central nervous system. Exp Mol Pathol. 1992, 56: 144-152. Gupta S, Sekhon L, Agarwal A: The role of oxidative stress and antioxidants in assisted reproduction. Curr Wom Health Rev. 2010, 6: 227-238. Combelles CM, Gupta S, Agarwal A: Could oxidative stress influence the in-vitro maturation of oocytes?. Reprod Biomed Online. 2009, 18: 864-880. Sikka SC: Role of oxidative stress response elements and antioxidants in prostate cancer pathobiology and chemoprevention–a mechanistic approach. Curr Med Chem. 2003, 10: 2679-2692. Oyawoye O, Abdel Gadir A, Garner A, Constantinovici N, Perrett C, Hardiman P: Antioxidants and reactive oxygen species in follicular fluid of women undergoing IVF: relationship to outcome. Hum Reprod. 2003, 18: 2270-2274. Revelli A, Delle Piane L, Casano S, Molinari E, Massobrio M, Rinaudo P: Follicular fluid content and oocyte quality: from single biochemical markers to metabolomics. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2009, 7: 40- Jana SK KNB, Chattopadhyay R, Chakravarty B, Chaudhury K: Upper control limit of reactive oxygen species in follicular fluid beyond which viable embryo formation is not favorable. Reprod Toxicol. 2010, 29: 447-451. Agarwal A, Said TM, Bedaiwy MA, Banerjee J, Alvarez JG: Oxidative stress in an assisted reproductive techniques setting. Fertil Steril. 2006, 86: 503-512. Takenaka M, Horiuchi T, Yanagimachi R: Effects of light on development of mammalian zygotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007, 104: 14289-14293. Tarozzi N, Bizzaro D, Flamigni C, Borini A: Clinical relevance of sperm DNA damage in assisted reproduction. Reprod Biomed Online. 2007, 14: 746-757. Martin-Romero FJ, Ortiz-de-Galisteo JR, Lara-Laranjeira J, Dominguez-Arroyo JA, Gonzalez-Carrera E, Alvarez IS: Store-operated calcium entry in human oocytes and sensitivity to oxidative stress. Biol Reprod. 2008, 78: 307-315. Tamura H, Takasaki A, Miwa I, Taniguchi K, Maekawa R, Asada H, Taketani T, Matsuoka A, Yamagata Y, Shimamura K, et al: Oxidative stress impairs oocyte quality and melatonin protects oocytes from free radical damage and improves fertilization rate. J Pineal Res. 2008, 44: 280-287. Attaran M, Pasqualotto E, Falcone T, Goldberg JM, Miller KF, Agarwal A, Sharma RK: The effect of follicular fluid reactive oxygen species on the outcome of in vitro fertilization. Int J Fertil Womens Med. 2000, 45: 314-320. Martin-Romero FJ, Miguel-Lasobras EM, Dominguez-Arroyo JA, Gonzalez-Carrera E, Alvarez IS: Contribution of culture media to oxidative stress and its effect on human oocytes. Reprod Biomed Online. 2008, 17: 652-661. Kawamura Y, Uchijima Y, Horike N, Tonami K, Nishiyama K, Amano T, Asano T, Kurihara Y, Kurihara H: Sirt3 protects in vitro-fertilized mouse preimplantation embryos against oxidative stress-induced p53-mediated developmental arrest. J Clin Invest. 2010, 120: 2817-2828. Ozkaya MO, Naziroglu M: Multivitamin and mineral supplementation modulates oxidative stress and antioxidant vitamin levels in serum and follicular fluid of women undergoing in vitro fertilization. Fertil Steril. 2010, 94: 2465-2466.