The Relationship of Omega-3 Fatty Acids with Dementia and Cognitive Decline: Evidence from Prospective Cohort Studies of Supplementation, Dietary Intake, and Blood Markers

2022, Estimation of the global prevalence of dementia in 2019 and forecasted prevalence in 2050: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019, Lancet Public Health, 7, e105, 10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00249-8 Cholewski, 2018, A comprehensive review of chemistry, sources and bioavailability of omega-3 fatty acids, Nutrients, 10, 1662, 10.3390/nu10111662 Geleijnse, 2010, Alpha-linolenic acid: is it essential to cardiovascular health?, Curr. Atheroscler. Rep., 12, 359, 10.1007/s11883-010-0137-0 Boudrault, 2009, Experimental models and mechanisms underlying the protective effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in Alzheimer’s disease, J. Nutr. Biochem., 20, 1, 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2008.05.016 Heras-Sandoval, 2016, Role of docosahexaenoic acid in the modulation of glial cells in Alzheimer’s disease, J Neuroinflammation, 13, 61, 10.1186/s12974-016-0525-7 Wood, 2022, Dietary and supplemental long-chain omega-3 fatty acids as moderators of cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease, Eur. J. Nutr., 61, 589, 10.1007/s00394-021-02655-4 Sala-Vila, 2022, Red blood cell DHA is inversely associated with risk of incident Alzheimer’s disease and all-cause dementia: Framingham offspring study, Nutrients, 14, 2408, 10.3390/nu14122408 Tully, 2003, Low serum cholesteryl ester-docosahexaenoic acid levels in Alzheimer’s disease: a case-control study, Br. J. Nutr., 89, 483, 10.1079/BJN2002804 Whalley, 2008, n-3 fatty acid erythrocyte membrane content, APOE varepsilon4, and cognitive variation: an observational follow-up study in late adulthood, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 87, 449, 10.1093/ajcn/87.2.449 Phillips, 2015, No effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on cognition and mood in individuals with cognitive impairment and probable Alzheimer’s disease: a randomised controlled trial, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 16, 24600, 10.3390/ijms161024600 van de Rest, 2016, APOE ε4 and the associations of seafood and long-chain omega-3 fatty acids with cognitive decline, Neurology, 86, 2063, 10.1212/WNL.0000000000002719 Li, 2022, A gene-environment interplay between omega-3 supplementation and APOE ε4 provides insights for Alzheimer’s disease precise prevention amongst high-genetic-risk population, Eur. J. Neurol., 29, 422, 10.1111/ene.15160 Jeong, 2019, ApoE4-induced cholesterol dysregulation and its brain cell type-specific implications in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease, Mol. Cells, 42, 739 Beydoun, 2007, Plasma n-3 fatty acids and the risk of cognitive decline in older adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 85, 1103, 10.1093/ajcn/85.4.1103 Barberger-Gateau, 2011, Dietary omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and Alzheimer's disease: interaction with apolipoprotein E genotype, Curr. Alzheimer Res., 8, 479, 10.2174/156720511796391926 Chu, 2021, Integration of metabolomics, genomics, and immune phenotypes reveals the causal roles of metabolites in disease, Genome Biol, 22, 198, 10.1186/s13059-021-02413-z McKhann, 1984, Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer’s Disease, Neurology, 34, 939, 10.1212/WNL.34.7.939 Kim, 2011, Genome-wide association study of CSF biomarkers Abeta1-42, t-tau, and p-tau181p in the ADNI cohort, Neurology, 76, 69, 10.1212/WNL.0b013e318204a397 Page, 2021, The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews, BMJ, 372, n71, 10.1136/bmj.n71 Yu, 2020, Evidence-based prevention of Alzheimer’s disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of 243 observational prospective studies and 153 randomised controlled trials, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 91, 1201, 10.1136/jnnp-2019-321913 Li, 2023, Predictors of cognitive deterioration in subjective cognitive decline: evidence from longitudinal studies and implications for SCD-plus criteria, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 10.1136/jnnp-2022-330246 Orsini, 2010, From floated to conventional confidence intervals for the relative risks based on published dose-response data, Comput Methods Programs Biomed, 98, 90, 10.1016/j.cmpb.2009.11.005 Grant, 2014, Converting an odds ratio to a range of plausible relative risks for better communication of research findings, BMJ, 348, f7450, 10.1136/bmj.f7450 Higgins, 2003, Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses, BMJ, 327, 557, 10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557 Xu, 2018, The robust error meta-regression method for dose-response meta-analysis, Int J. Evid. Based Healthc., 16, 138, 10.1097/XEB.0000000000000132 Hedges, 2010, Robust variance estimation in meta-regression with dependent effect size estimates, Res. Synth. Methods, 1, 39, 10.1002/jrsm.5 Melo van Lent, 2021, Eicosapentaenoic acid is associated with decreased incidence of alzheimer’s dementia in the oldest old, Nutrients, 13, 10.3390/nu13020461 Koch, 2021, Case-cohort study of plasma phospholipid fatty acid profiles, cognitive function, and risk of dementia: a secondary analysis in the Ginkgo Evaluation of Memory Study, Am J Clin Nutr, 114, 154, 10.1093/ajcn/nqab087 Nozaki, 2021, Association between dietary fish and PUFA intake in midlife and dementia in later life: the JPHC saku mental health study, J Alzheimers Dis, 79, 1091, 10.3233/JAD-191313 Thomas, 2020, Blood polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids, brain atrophy, cognitive decline, and dementia risk, Alzheimers Dement., 10.1002/alz.042968 Jiang, 2020, Midlife dietary intakes of monounsaturated acids, n-6 polyunsaturated acids, and plant-based fat are inversely associated with risk of cognitive impairment in older Singapore Chinese adults, J. Nutr., 150, 901, 10.1093/jn/nxz325 Gustafson, 2020, Dietary fatty acids and risk of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias: observations from the Washington Heights-Hamilton Heights-Inwood Columbia Aging Project (WHICAP), Alzheimers Dement., 16, 1638, 10.1002/alz.12154 Mao, 2019, Effects of seafood consumption and toenail mercury and selenium levels on cognitive function among American adults: 25 y of follow up, Nutrition, 61, 77, 10.1016/j.nut.2018.11.002 Bigornia, 2018, Prospective associations of erythrocyte composition and dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 PUFA with measures of cognitive function, Nutrients, 10, 10.3390/nu10091253 Haution-Bitker, 2018, Associations between plasmatic polyunsaturated fatty acids concentrations and cognitive status and decline in neurocognitive disorders, J. Nutr. Health Aging, 22, 718, 10.1007/s12603-018-1010-z Nooyens, 2018, Fish consumption, intake of fats and cognitive decline at middle and older age: the Doetinchem Cohort Study, Eur. J. Nutr., 57, 1667, 10.1007/s00394-017-1453-8 Ammann, 2017, Erythrocyte omega-3 fatty acids are inversely associated with incident dementia: secondary analyses of longitudinal data from the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study (WHIMS), Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 121, 68, 10.1016/j.plefa.2017.06.006 Yamagishi, 2017, Serum α-linolenic and other ω-3 fatty acids, and risk of disabling dementia: community-based nested case-control study, Clin. Nutr., 36, 793, 10.1016/j.clnu.2016.05.011 van de Rest, 2016, APOE ε4 and the associations of seafood and long-chain omega-3 fatty acids with cognitive decline, Neurology, 86, 2063, 10.1212/WNL.0000000000002719 Otsuka, 2014, Serum docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acid and risk of cognitive decline over 10 years among elderly Japanese, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 68, 503, 10.1038/ejcn.2013.264 Bowman, 2013, Plasma omega-3 PUFA and white matter mediated executive decline in older adults, Front. Aging Neurosci., 5, 92, 10.3389/fnagi.2013.00092 Titova, 2013, Dietary intake of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids is linked to gray matter volume and cognitive function in elderly, Age (Dordrecht, Netherlands), 35, 1495, 10.1007/s11357-012-9453-3 Ammann, 2013, ω-3 fatty acids and domain-specific cognitive aging: secondary analyses of data from WHISCA, Neurology, 81, 1484, 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182a9584c Okereke, 2012, Dietary fat types and 4-year cognitive change in community-dwelling older women, Ann Neurol, 72, 124, 10.1002/ana.23593 Rönnemaa, 2012, Serum fatty-acid composition and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease: a longitudinal population-based study, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 66, 885, 10.1038/ejcn.2012.63 Lopez, 2011, High dietary and plasma levels of the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid are associated with decreased dementia risk: the Rancho Bernardo study, J. Nutr. Health Aging, 15, 25, 10.1007/s12603-011-0009-5 Kesse-Guyot, 2011, Thirteen-year prospective study between fish consumption, long-chain n-3 fatty acids intakes and cognitive function, J. Nutr. Health Aging, 15, 115, 10.1007/s12603-011-0023-7 Gao, 2011, Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements and cognitive decline: Singapore Longitudinal Aging Studies, J. Nutr. Health Aging, 15, 32, 10.1007/s12603-011-0010-z Samieri, 2011, ω-3 fatty acids and cognitive decline: modulation by ApoEε4 allele and depression, Neurobiol. Aging, 32, 2317.e13, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.03.020 Vercambre, 2010, Dietary fat intake in relation to cognitive change in high-risk women with cardiovascular disease or vascular factors, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 64, 1134, 10.1038/ejcn.2010.113 Vercambre, 2009, Long-term association of food and nutrient intakes with cognitive and functional decline: a 13-year follow-up study of elderly French women, Br. J. Nutr., 102, 419, 10.1017/S0007114508201959 Devore, 2009, Dietary intake of fish and omega-3 fatty acids in relation to long-term dementia risk, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 90, 170, 10.3945/ajcn.2008.27037 Devore, 2009, Dietary fat intake and cognitive decline in women with type 2 diabetes, Diabetes Care, 32, 635, 10.2337/dc08-1741 Kröger, 2009, Omega-3 fatty acids and risk of dementia: the Canadian Study of Health and Aging, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 90, 184, 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26987 van de Rest, 2009, Intakes of (n-3) fatty acids and fatty fish are not associated with cognitive performance and 6-year cognitive change in men participating in the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study, J. Nutr., 139, 2329, 10.3945/jn.109.113647 Samieri, 2008, Low plasma eicosapentaenoic acid and depressive symptomatology are independent predictors of dementia risk, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 88, 714, 10.1093/ajcn/88.3.714 Eskelinen, 2008, Fat intake at midlife and cognitive impairment later in life: a population-based CAIDE study, Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry, 23, 741, 10.1002/gps.1969 Velho, 2008, Dietary intake adequacy and cognitive function in free-living active elderly: a cross-sectional and short-term prospective study, Clin. Nutr., 27, 77, 10.1016/j.clnu.2007.10.011 Whalley, 2008, n-3 Fatty acid erythrocyte membrane content, APOE varepsilon4, and cognitive variation: an observational follow-up study in late adulthood, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 87, 449, 10.1093/ajcn/87.2.449 Barberger-Gateau, 2007, Dietary patterns and risk of dementia: the Three-City cohort study, Neurology, 69, 1921, 10.1212/01.wnl.0000278116.37320.52 van Gelder, 2007, Fish consumption, n-3 fatty acids, and subsequent 5-y cognitive decline in elderly men: the Zutphen Elderly Study, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 85, 1142, 10.1093/ajcn/85.4.1142 Dullemeijer, 2007, n 3 fatty acid proportions in plasma and cognitive performance in older adults, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 86, 1479, 10.1093/ajcn/86.5.1479 Solfrizzi, 2006, Dietary fatty acids intakes and rate of mild cognitive impairment. The Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging, Exp. Gerontol., 41, 619, 10.1016/j.exger.2006.03.017 Schaefer, 2006, Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: the Framingham Heart Study, Arch. Neurol., 63, 1545, 10.1001/archneur.63.11.1545 Laitinen, 2006, Fat intake at midlife and risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: a population-based study, Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord., 22, 99, 10.1159/000093478 Solfrizzi, 2006, Dietary intake of unsaturated fatty acids and age-related cognitive decline: a 8.5-year follow-up of the Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging, Neurobiol. Aging, 27, 1694, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.09.026 Morris, 2005, Fish consumption and cognitive decline with age in a large community study, Arch. Neurol., 62, 1849, 10.1001/archneur.62.12.noc50161 Morris, 2003, Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease, Arch. Neurol., 60, 940, 10.1001/archneur.60.7.940 Heude, 2003, Cognitive decline and fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membranes–The EVA Study, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 77, 803, 10.1093/ajcn/77.4.803 Laurin, 2003, Omega-3 fatty acids and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia, J. Alzheimers Dis., 5, 315, 10.3233/JAD-2003-5407 Engelhart, 2002, Diet and risk of dementia: does fat matter?: The Rotterdam Study, Neurology, 59, 1915, 10.1212/01.WNL.0000038345.77753.46 Kalmijn, 1997, Polyunsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants, and cognitive function in very old men, Am. J. Epidemiol., 145, 33, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009029 Wu, 2015, Omega-3 fatty acids intake and risks of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 48, 1, 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.11.008 Zhang, 2016, Intakes of fish and polyunsaturated fatty acids and mild-to-severe cognitive impairment risks: a dose-response meta-analysis of 21 cohort studies, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 103, 330, 10.3945/ajcn.115.124081 Kosti, 2022, Fish intake, n-3 fatty acid body status, and risk of cognitive decline: a systematic review and a dose-response meta-analysis of observational and experimental studies, Nutr. Rev., 80, 1445, 10.1093/nutrit/nuab078 Barbash, 2017, Alzheimer’s brains show inter-related changes in RNA and lipid metabolism, Neurobiol. Dis., 106, 1, 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.06.008 Yassine, 2017, Association of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation with Alzheimer disease stage in apolipoprotein E epsilon4 carriers: a review, JAMA Neurol, 74, 339, 10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.4899 Daiello, 2015, Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative, Association of fish oil supplement use with preservation of brain volume and cognitive function, Alzheimers Dement., 11, 226, 10.1016/j.jalz.2014.02.005 Quinn, 2010, Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease: a randomized trial, JAMA, 304, 1903, 10.1001/jama.2010.1510 Yassine, 2017, DHA brain uptake and APOE4 status: a PET study with [1-11C]-DHA, Alzheimers Res. Ther., 9, 23, 10.1186/s13195-017-0250-1 Chiu, 2008, The effects of omega-3 fatty acids monotherapy in Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment: a preliminary randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study, Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 32, 1538, 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.05.015 Shinto, 2014, A randomized placebo-controlled pilot trial of omega-3 fatty acids and alpha lipoic acid in Alzheimer’s disease, J. Alzheimers Dis., 38, 111, 10.3233/JAD-130722 Yurko-Mauro, 2010, Beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on cognition in age-related cognitive decline, Alzheimers Dement., 6, 456, 10.1016/j.jalz.2010.01.013 Mahmoudi, 2014, Effect of low dose ω-3 poly unsaturated fatty acids on cognitive status among older people: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled study, J. Diabetes Metab. Disord., 13, 34, 10.1186/2251-6581-13-34 Dangour, 2010, Effect of 2-y n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on cognitive function in older people: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 91, 1725, 10.3945/ajcn.2009.29121 Norwitz, 2021, Precision nutrition for Alzheimer’s prevention in ApoE4 carriers, Nutrients, 13, 1362, 10.3390/nu13041362