Reducing harm and promoting positive media use strategies: new perspectives in understanding the impact of preschooler media use on health and development
Tóm tắt
Most children grow up in homes with easy access to multiple screens. Screen use by children between the ages of 0 to 5 has become a worldwide preoccupation. In the present narrative review, we examine child and parent screen use and its contribution to physical, cognitive, and social developmental outcomes. As research has mostly focused on the adverse consequences of screen media, we aim to depict both the negative and the positive influences of screen usage. To provide a more nuanced portrait of the potential benefits and harms of screen use, we examine how consequences of media use vary according to the content of media (ex., educational, violent), context (ex., using screens during mealtimes), and the nature (ex., passive vs active use) of child screen use. Our review supports existing screen time guidelines and recommendations and suggests that media content, the context of use, and the nature of child use, as well as the parent’s own screen use, be considered clinically. Future research should seek to clarify how these dimensions jointly contribute to child screen use profiles and associated consequences. Finally, child sex, behavioral/temperamental difficulties, and family adversity appear to contribute to child screen use and its consequences and should be considered in future research. Suggestions for harm-reduction approaches are discussed.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Académie de la transformation numérique (2022). Portrait numérique des foyers québécois. Available at: https://transformation-numerique.ulaval.ca/enquetes-et-mesures/netendances/2022-01-portrait-numerique-des-foyers-quebecois
Adams-Bass, V. N., Stevenson, H. C., & Kotzin, D. S. (2014). Measuring the meaning of Black media stereotypes and their relationship to the racial identity, Black history knowledge, and racial socialization of African American youth. Journal of Black Studies,45, 367–395. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934714530396
American Academy of Pediatrics (2021). Family Media Plan. https://www.healthychildren.org/English/fmp/Pages/MediaPlan.aspx?_ga=2.249242190.810192521.1663526018-1829385780.1663526018&_gl=1*1ondgzi*_ga*MTgyOTM4NTc4MC4xNjYzNTI2MDE4*_ga_FD9D3XZVQQ*MTY2MzUyNjAxNy4xLjEuMTY2MzUyNjA4OC4wLjAuMA. Accessed 23 Nov 2022.
Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., Rothstein, H. R., & Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in Eastern and Western countries : A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin,136(2), 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018251
Anderson, D. R., Huston, A. C., Schmitt, K. L., Linebarger, D. L., Wright, J. C., & Larson, R. (2001). Early childhood television viewing and adolescent behavior: The recontact study. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development,66(1), i–154.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Oxford, UK: Prentice Hall.
Barr, R. (2010). Transfer of learning between 2D and 3D sources during infancy: Informing theory and practice. Developmental Review,30(2), 128–154.
Barr, R., Lauricella, A., Zack, E., & Calvert, S. L. (2010). Infant and early childhood exposure to adult-directed and child-directed television programming: Relations with cognitive skills at age four. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 56, 21-48. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.0.0038
Bergeron, P., & Paquette, M. C. (2014). Les mesures de repas scolaires subventionnés et leurs impacts sur l’alimentation et le poids corporel des jeunes. Expériences étrangères et perspectives pour le Québec. Québec: Intitut national de santé publique du Québec.
Bernard, J. Y., Padmapriya, N., Chen, B., Cai, S., Tan, K. H., Yap, F., & Müller-Riemenschneider, F. (2017). Predictors of screen viewing time in young Singaporean children: the GUSTO cohort. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity,14(1), 1–10.
Beyens, I., & Nathanson, A. I. (2019). Electronic media use and sleep among preschoolers: Evidence for time-shifted and less consolidated sleep. Health Communication,34(5), 537–544.
Bleakley, A., Vaala, S., Jordan, A. B., & Romer, D. (2014). The Annenberg Media Environment Survey: Media access and use in U.S. homes with children and adolescents. In A. B. Jordan & D. Romer (Eds.), Media and the well-being of children and adolescents (pp. 1–19). Oxford University Press.
Birken, C. S., Maguire, J., Mekky, M., Manlhiot, C., Beck, C. E., Jacobson, S., Peer, M., Taylor, C., McCrindle, B. W., & Parkin, P. C. (2011). Parental factors associated with screen time in pre-school children in primary-care practice: A TARGet Kids! study. Public Health Nutrition,14(12), 2134–2138. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980011000516
Braune-Krickau, K., Schneebeli, L., Pehlke-Milde, J., Gemperle, M., Koch, R., & von Wyl, A. (2021). Smartphones in the nursery : Parental smartphone use and parental sensitivity and responsiveness within parent-child interaction in early childhood (0–5 years): A scoping review. Infant Mental Health Journal,42(2), 161–175. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21908
Bronfenbrenner, U. and Morris, P.A. (2007). The bioecological model of human development. In R.M. Lerner and W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Theoretical models of human development (pp. 793-828). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0114
Bushman, B. J. (1995). Moderating role of trait aggressiveness in the effects of violent media on aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,69, 950–960. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.950
Canadian Pediatric Society. (2022). Screen time and preschool children: promoting health and development in a digital world.https://cps.ca/en/documents/position/screen-time-and-preschool-children
Canani da Rosa, L., Pedrotti, B. G., Yustas Mallmann, M., & Bitencourt Frizzo, G. (2021). O Papel da Coparentalidade e da Rede de Apoio Materna no Uso de Mídias Digitais por Bebês. Contextos Clínicos,13(3), 786–806. https://doi.org/10.4013/ctc.2020.133.04
Cardoso Azevedo, E., da Silveira Riter, H., Minghelli Pieta, M. A., & Bitencourt Frizzo, G. (2022). Digital media use on interactions between mother and child: Differences in infants’ early years. Paideia,0103863X, 32.
Cespedes, E. M., Gillman, M. W., Kleinman, K., Rifas-Shiman, S. L., Redline, S., & Taveras, E. M. (2014). Television viewing, bedroom television, and sleep duration from infancy to mid-childhood. Pediatrics,133(5), e1163–e1171.
Chen, B., van Dam, R. M., Tan, C. S., Chua, H. L., Wong, P. G., Bernard, J. Y., & Müller-Riemenschneider, F. (2019). Screen viewing behavior and sleep duration among children aged 2 and below. BMC Public Health,19(1), 1–10.
Cheung, C. H., Bedford, R., Saez De Urabain, I. R., Karmiloff-Smith, A., & Smith, T. J. (2017). Daily touchscreen use in infants and toddlers is associated with reduced sleep and delayed sleep onset. Scientific Reports,7(1), 1–7.
Choe, D. E., Lawrence, A. C., & Cingel, D. P. (2022). The role of different screen media devices, child dysregulation, and parent screen media use in children’s self-regulation. Psychology of Popular Media,No Pagination Specified-No Pagination Specified. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm000041
Christakis, D. A. (2011). The effects of fast-paced cartoons. Pediatrics,128(4), 772–774.
Christakis, D. A., & Garrison, M. M. (2009). Preschool-aged children’s television viewing in child care settings. Pediatrics,124(6), 1627–1632.
Christakis, D. A., Garrison, M. M., Herrenkohl, T., Haggerty, K., Rivara, F. P., Zhou, C., & Liekweg, K. (2013). Modifying media content for preschool children: A randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics,131(3), 431–438.
Christakis, D. A., Ramirez, J. S. B., Ferguson, S. M., Ravinder, S., & Ramirez, J. M. (2018). How early media exposure may affect cognitive function: A review of results from observations in humans and experiments in mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,115(40), 9851–9858.
Cliff, D. P., Howard, S. J., Radesky, J. S., McNeill, J., & Vella, S. A. (2018). Early childhood media exposure and self-regulation: Bidirectional longitudinal associations. Academic Pediatrics,18(7), 813–819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2018.04.012
Coyne, S. M., Holmgren, H. G., Shawcroft, J. E., Barr, R., Davis, E., Ashby, S., Stockdale, L., & Domoff, S. (2022b). ABCs or attack–boom–crash? A longitudinal analysis of associations between media content and the development of problematic media use in early childhood. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 3(4: Winter). https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000093
Coyne, S. M., Linder, J. R., Rasmussen, E. E., Nelson, D. A., & Birkbeck, V. (2016). Pretty as a princess: Longitudinal effects of engagement with Disney princesses on gender stereotypes, body esteem, and prosocial behavior in children. Child Development,87(6), 1909–1925.
Coyne, S. M., Shawcroft, J., Gale, M., Gentile, D. A., Etherington, J. T., Holmgren, H., & Stockdale, L. (2021). Tantrums, toddlers and technology : temperament, media emotion regulation, and problematic media use in early childhood. Computers in Human Behavior,120, 106762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106762
Coyne, S. M., Shawcroft, J., Gale, M., Reich, S. M., Linder, L., McDaniel, B., Stockdale, L., & Booth, M. (2022a). Digital distraction or accessible aid? Parental media use during feedings and parent-infant attachment, dysfunction, and relationship quality. Computers in Human Behavior,127, 107051.
DeLoache, J. S., Chiong, C., Sherman, K., Islam, N., Vanderborght, M., Troseth, G. L., Strouse, G. A., & O’Doherty, K. (2010). Do babies learn from baby media? Psychological Science,21(11), 1570–1574. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610384145
Duch, H., Fisher, E. M., Ensari, I., Font, M., Harrington, A., Taromino, C., & Rodriguez, C. (2013). Association of screen time use and language development in Hispanic toddlers: a cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Clinical Pediatrics,52(9), 857–865.
Fitzpatrick, C., Almeida, M. L., Harvey, E., Garon-Carrier, G., Berrigan, F., & Asbridge, M. (2022a). An examination of bedtime media and excessive screen time by Canadian preschoolers during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Pediatrics,22(1), 212. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-022-03280-8
Fitzpatrick, C., Binet, M.-A., Harvey, E., Barr, R., Couture, M., & Garon-Carrier, G. (2023). Preschooler screen time and temperamental anger/frustration during the COVID-19 pandemic. Pediatric Research, 1‑6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-023-02485-6
Fitzpatrick, C., Harvey, E., Cristini, E., Laurent, A., Lemelin, J.-P., & Garon-Carrier, G. (2022b). Is the association between early childhood screen media use and effortful control bidirectional? A prospective study during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 918834. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.918834
Fitzpatrick, C., Pagani, L. S., Barnett, T. A. (2012). Early childhood television viewing predicts explosive leg strength and waist circumference by middle childhood. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-87
Gaudreau, C., King, Y. A., Dore, R. A., Puttre, H., Nichols, D., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2020). Preschoolers benefit equally from video chat, pseudo-contingent video, and live book reading: Implications for storytime during the coronavirus pandemic and beyond. Frontiers in Psychology, 11: 2158. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02158
Geist, E. A., & Gibson, M. (2000). The effect of network and public television programs on four and five year olds ability to attend to educational tasks. Journal of Instructional Psychology,27(4), 250–250.
Gentile, D. A., Berch, O. N., Choo, H., Khoo, A., & Walsh, D. A. (2017). Bedroom media: One risk factor for development. Developmental Psychology,53(12), 2340.
Gerding, A., & Signorielli, N. (2014). Gender roles in tween television programming : A content analysis of two genres. Sex Roles,70(1), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0330-z
Gillioz, E, Lejeune, F., Gentaz, É. (2022). Les effets des écrans sur le développement psychologique des très jeunes enfants : une revue critique des recherches récentes. A.N.A.E., 178, 000–000.
Goh, D. Y., & Jacob, A. (2012). Perception of picky eating among children in Singapore and its impact on caregivers: A questionnaire survey. Asia Pacific Family Medicine,11, 1–8.
Greitemeyer, T., & Osswald, S. (2010). Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,98, 211–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016997
Hartshorne, J. K., Huang, Y. T., Paredes, P. M. L., Oppenheimer, K., Robbins, P. T., & Velasco, M. D. (2021). Screen time as an index of family distress. Current Research in Behavioral Sciences,2, 100023.
Haslam, D., Tee, A., Baker, S. (2017). The use of social media as a mechanism of social support in parents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26, 2026-2037. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0716-6
Helm, A. F., & Spencer, R. M. (2019). Television use and its effects on sleep in early childhood. Sleep Health,5(3), 241–247.
Hill D., Ameenuddin N., Chassiakos Y.R., Cross C., Radesky J., Hutchinson J., Boyd R., Mendelson R., Moreno M.A., Smith J., Swanson W.S., Council on Communications and Media. (2016). Media and young minds. Pediatrics, 138(5). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-2591
Hill, M. M., Gangi, D., Miller, M., Rafi, S. M., & Ozonoff, S. (2020). Screen time in 36-month-olds at increased likelihood for ASD and ADHD. Infant Behavior and Development,61, 101484.
Hiltunen, P., Leppänen, M. H., Ray, C., Määttä, S., Vepsäläinen, H., Koivusilta, L., Sajaniemi, N., Erkkola, M., & Roos, E. (2021). Relationship between screen time and sleep among Finnish preschool children: Results from the DAGIS study. Sleep Medicine,77, 75–81.
Hish, A. J., Wood, C. T., Howard, J., Yin, S. H., Rothman, R. L., Sanders, L. M., & Perrin, E. M. (2020). Infants who watch television become toddlers who watch more television: screen time patterns in the Greenlight Study. Pediatrics,146(1_MeetingAbstract), 32–33.
Hoyos Cillero, I., & Jago, R. (2010). Systematic review of correlates of screen-viewing among young children. Preventive Medicine,51(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2010.04.012
Huber, B., Yeates, M., Meyer, D., Fleckhammer, L., & Kaufman, J. (2018). The effects of screen media content on young children’s executive functioning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,170, 72–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.01.006
Hutton, J. S., Dudley, J., Horowitz-Kraus, T., Dewitt, T., & Holland, S. K. (2020). Associations between screen-based media use and brain white matter integrity in preschool-aged children. JAMA Pediatrics,174(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.3869
Jago, R., Thompson, J. L., Sebire, S. J., Wood, L., Pool, L., Zahra, J., & Lawlor, D. A. (2014). Cross-sectional associations between the screen-time of parents and young children: Differences by parent and child gender and day of the week. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity,11, 54. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-11-54
Jones, R. A., Hinkley, T., Okely, A. D., & Salmon, J. (2013). Tracking physical activity and sedentary behavior in childhood : A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 44, 651‑658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2013.03.001
Jordan, A., & Prendella, K. (2019). The invisible children of media research. Journal of Children and Media,13(2), 235–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2019.1591662
Josephson, W. L. (1987). Television violence and children’s aggression: Testing the priming, social script, and disinhibition predictions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,53, 882–890. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.5.882
Kildare, C. A., & Middlemiss, W. (2017). Impact of parents mobile device use on parent-child interaction: A literature review. Computers in Human Behavior,75, 579–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.06.003
Kirkorian, H. L., Pempek, T. A., Murphy, L. A., Schmidt, M. E., & Anderson, D. R. (2009). Child Development,80(5), 1350–1359. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01337.x
Konok, V., Liszkai-Peres, K., Bunford, N., Ferdinandy, B., Jurányi, Z., Ujfalussy, D. J., Réti, Z., Pogány, Á., Kampis, G., & Miklósi, Á. (2021). Mobile use induces local attentional precedence and is associated with limited socio-cognitive skills in preschoolers. Computers in Human Behavior,120, 106758.
Konrad, C., Hillmann, M., Rispler, J., Niehaus, L., Neuhoff, L., Barr, R. (2021). Quality of mother-child interaction before, during, and after smartphone use. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.616656
Krogh, M. T., Egmose, I., Stuart, A. C., Madsen, E. B., Haase, T. W., & Væver, M. S. (2021). A longitudinal examination of daily amounts of screen time and technoference in infants aged 2–11 months and associations with maternal sociodemographic factors. Infant Behavior & Development,63, 101543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2021.101543
Lapierre, M. A., Piotrowski, J. T., & Linebarger, D. L. (2012). Background television in the homes of US children. Pediatrics,130(5), 839–846. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2581
Lauricella, A. R., Wartella, E., & Rideout, V. J. (2015). Young children’s screen time: The complex role of parent and child factors. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,36, 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.12.001
Law, E. C., Han, M. X., Lai, Z., Lim, S., Ong, Z. Y., Ng, V., ... & Nelson, C. A. (2023). Associations between infant screen use, electroencephalography markers, and cognitive outcomes. JAMA Pediatrics, 177 (3), 311-318. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2022.5674
Lee, E.-Y., Spence, J. C., & Carson, V. (2017). Television viewing, reading, physical activity and brain development among young South Korean children. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport,20(7), 672–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2016.11.014
Lee, H. E., Kim, J. Y., & Kim, C. (2022). The influence of parent media use, parent attitude on media, and parenting style on children’s media use. Children, 9(1), Art. 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9010037
Leslie, K. M. (2008). Harm reduction: An approach to reducing risky health behaviours in adolescents. Canadian Paediatric Society, Adolescent Health Committee. Paediatrics and Child Health,13, 53–56.
Lillard, A. S., Drell, M. B., Richey, E. M., Boguszewski, K., & Smith, E. D. (2015). Further examination of the immediate impact of television on children’s executive function. Developmental Psychology,51(6), 792–805. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039097
Lillard, A. S., & Peterson, J. (2011). The immediate impact of different types of television on young children’s executive function. Pediatrics,128(4), 644–649. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-1919
Lin, H.-P., Chen, K.-L., Chou, W., Yuan, K.-S., Yen, S.-Y., Chen, Y.-S., & Chow, J. C. (2020). Prolonged touch screen device usage is associated with emotional and behavioral problems, but not language delay, in toddlers. Infant Behavior & Development,58, 101424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2020.101424
Lin, L.-Y., Cherng, R.-J., & Chen, Y.-J. (2017). Effect of touch screen tablet use on fine motor development of young children. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics,37(5), 457–467. https://doi.org/10.1080/01942638.2016.1255290
Linebarger, D. L., & Vaala, S. E. (2010). Screen media and language development in infants and toddlers: An ecological perspective. Developmental Review,30(2), 176–202.
Liu, W., Wu, X., Huang, K., Yan, S., Ma, L., Cao, H., Gan, H., & Tao, F. (2021). Early childhood screen time as a predictor of emotional and behavioral problems in children at 4 years: A birth cohort study in China. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine,26(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-020-00926-w
MacGowan, T. L., & Schmidt, L. A. (2021). Preschoolers’ social cognitive development in the age of screen time ubiquity. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking,24(2), 141–144. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0093
Madigan, S., Browne, D., Racine, N., Mori, C., & Tough, S. (2019). Association between screen time and children’s performance on a developmental screening test. JAMA Pediatrics,173(3), 244–250. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.5056
Madigan, S., McArthur, B. A., Anhorn, C., Eirich, R., & Christakis, D. A. (2020a). Associations between screen use and child language skills: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics,174(7), 665–675. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.0327
Madigan, S., Racine, N., & Tough, S. (2020b). Prevalence of preschoolers meeting vs exceeding screen time guidelines. JAMA Pediatrics,174(1), 93–95.
Martinot, P., Bernard, J. Y., Peyre, H., De Agostini, M., Forhan, A., Charles, M. A., & Heude, B. (2021). Exposure to screens and children’s language development in the EDEN mother–child cohort. Scientific Reports,11(1), 11863.
Masur, E. F., Flynn, V., Olson (2016). Infants’ background television exposure during play: negative relations to the quantity and quality of mothers’ speech and infants’ vocabulary acquisition. First Language, 36, 109 - 123https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723716639499
McArthur, B. A., Volkova, V., Tomopoulos, S., & Madigan, S. (2022a). Global prevalence of meeting screen time guidelines among children 5 years and younger: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 176(4), 373–383. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.6386
McArthur, B. A., Hentges, R., Christakis, D. A., McDonald, S., Tough, S., & Madigan, S. (2022b). Cumulative social risk and child screen use: The role of child temperament. Journal of Pediatric Psychology,47(2), 171–179.
McClure, E., & Barr, R. (2017). Building family relationships from a distance: supporting connections with babies and toddlers using video and video chat. In Media exposure during infancy and early childhood: The effects of content and context on learning and development (p. 227‑248). Springer International Publishing/Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45102-2_15
McClure, E. R., Chentsova-Dutton, Y. E., Barr, R. F., Holochwost, S. J., & Parrott, W. G. (2015). “Facetime doesn’t count”: Video chat as an exception to media restrictions for infants and toddlers. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction,6, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcci.2016.02.002
McDaniel, B. T., & Radesky, J. S. (2018). Technoference: longitudinal associations between parent technology use, parenting stress, and child behavior problems. Pediatric Research, 84(2), Art. 2. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-018-0052-6
Moore, S. A., Faulkner, G., Rhodes, R. E., Brussoni, M., Chulak-Bozzer, T., Ferguson, L. J., ... & Tremblay, M. S. (2020). Impact of the COVID-19 virus outbreak on movement and play behaviours of Canadian children and youth: a national survey. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity,17(1), 1–11.
Munzer, T. G., Miller, A. L., Weeks, H. M., Kaciroti, N., & Radesky, J. (2019). Differences in parent-toddler interactions with electronic versus print books. Pediatrics, 143(4):e20182012. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-2012
Myers, L. J., Keyser, H., & Cors, M. (2019). Co-viewers support participation in video chat interactions, but live experiences promote richer word learning for 24- to 36-month-olds in the USA. Journal of Children and Media,13(4), 415–432. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2019.1646294
Myruski, S., Gulyayeva, O., Birk, S., Pérez-Edgar, K., Buss, K. A., & Dennis-Tiwary, T. A. (2018). Digital disruption? Maternal mobile device use is related to infant social-emotional functioning. Developmental Science, 21(4), e12610. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12610
Nathanson, A. I., & Beyens, I. (2018). The role of sleep in the relation between young children’s mobile media use and effortful control. British Journal of Developmental Psychology,36(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12196
Nathanson, A. I., & Fries, P. T. (2014). Television exposure, sleep time, and neuropsychological function among preschoolers. Media Psychology,17(3), 237–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2014.915197
Neville, R. D., McArthur, B. A., Eirich, R., Lakes, K. D., & Madigan, S. (2021). Bidirectional associations between screen time and children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,62(12), 1475–1484. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13425
Nichols, D. L. (2022). Screen media, early cognitive development, and language : babies’ learning from screens. In The Routledge International Handbook of Children, Adolescents, and Media (2e éd.). Routledge.
Ochoa, W., Reich, S. M., & Farkas, G. (2021). The observed quality of caregiver-child interactions with and without a mobile screen device. Academic Pediatrics,21(4), 620–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2020.07.012
Pagani, L. S., Bernard, J., & Fitzpatrick, C. (2023). Prospective associations between preschool exposure to violent televiewing and psychosocial and academic risks in early adolescent boys and girls. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics: JDBP,44(1), e1–e11. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000001135
Pagani, L. S., Fitzpatrick, C., Barnett, T. A., & Dubow, E. (2010). Prospective associations between early childhood television exposure and academic, psychosocial, and physical well-being by middle childhood. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine,164(5), 425–431. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.50
Pagani, L. S., Harbec, M. J., & Barnett, T. A. (2019). Prospective associations between television in the preschool bedroom and later bio-psycho-social risks. Pediatric Research,85(7), 967–973.
Potvin Kent, M., Pauzé, E., Roy, E.-A., de Billy, N., & Czoli, C. (2019). Children and adolescents’ exposure to food and beverage marketing in social media apps. Pediatric Obesity,14(6), e12508. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijpo.12508
Radesky, J. S., Kistin, C., Eisenberg, S., Gross, J., Block, G., Zuckerman, B., & Silverstein, M. (2016a). Parent perspectives on their mobile technology use: The excitement and exhaustion of parenting while connected. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics,37(9), 694. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000357
Radesky, J., Miller, A. L., Rosenblum, K. L., Appugliese, D., Kaciroti, N., & Lumeng, J. C. (2015a). Maternal mobile device use during a structured parent-child interaction task. Academic Pediatrics,15(2), 238–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2014.10.001
Radesky, Peacock-Chambers, E., Zuckerman, B., & Silverstein, M. (2016b). Use of mobile technology to calm upset children: associations with social-emotional development JAMA Pediatrics, 170 (4), 397–399. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.4260
Radesky, J. S., Schumacher, J., & Zuckerman, B. (2015b). Mobile and interactive media use by young children : The good, the bad, and the unknown. Pediatrics,135(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-2251
Radesky, J. S., Silverstein, M., Zuckerman, B., & Christakis, D. A. (2014). Infant self-regulation and early childhood media exposure. Pediatrics,133(5), e1172-1178. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-2367
Reed, J., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2017). Learning on hold: Cell phones sidetrack parent-child interactions. Developmental Psychology,53, 1428–1436. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000292
Reich, S. M., Yau, J. C., & Warschauer, M. (2016). Tablet-based ebooks for young children: What does the research say? Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics,37(7), 585–591.
Ribner, A., Fitzpatrick, C., & Blair, C. (2017). Family socioeconomic status moderates associations between television viewing and school readiness skills. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics: JDBP,38(3), 233–239. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000425
Rideout, V., & Robb, M. B. (2020). The common sense census: Media use by kids age zero to eight, 2020. Common Sense Media.
Roche, E., Rocha-Hidalgo, J., Piper, D., Strouse, G. A., Neely, L. I., Ryu, J., Myers, L. J., McClure, E., Troseth, G. L., Zosh, J. M., & Barr, R. (2022). Presence at a distance: Video chat supports intergenerational sensitivity and positive infant affect during COVID-19. Infancy. https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12491.
Roseberry, S., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2014). Skype me! Socially contingent interactions help toddlers learn language. Child Development,85(3), 956–970. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12166
Schmidt, M., Pempek, T., Kirkorian, H., Lund, A., & Anderson, D. (2008). The effects of background television on the toy play behavior of very young children. Child Development,79, 1137–1151. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01180.x
Setliff, A. E., & Courage, M. L. (2011). Background television and infants’ allocation of their attention during toy play: Background tv and attention to toys. Infancy,16(6), 611–639. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7078.2011.00070.x
Smith, H. (2020). Children, executive functioning, and digital media use: a review. Common sense media. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/research/report/children_executive_functioning_and_digital_media_review_1.pdf
Staples, A. D., Hoyniak, C., McQuillan, M. E., Molfese, V., & Bates, J. E. (2021). Screen use before bedtime: consequences for nighttime sleep in young children. Infant behavior & development,62, 101522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2020.101522
Sundqvist, A., Koch, F.-S., Birberg Thornberg, U., Barr, R., & Heimann, M. (2021). Growing up in a digital world – digital media and the association with the child’s language development at two years of age. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 569920. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.569920
Supanitayanon, S., Trairatvorakul, P., & Chonchaiya, W. (2020). Screen media exposure in the first 2 years of life and preschool cognitive development: A longitudinal study. Pediatric Research,88(6), 894–902.
Tamana, S. K., Ezeugwu, V., Chikuma, J., Lefebvre, D. L., Azad, M. B., Moraes, T. J., ... & Mandhane, P. J. (2019). Screen-time is associated with inattention problems in preschoolers: results from the CHILD birth cohort study. PloS one,14(4), e0213995.
Teekavanich, S., Rukprayoon, H., Sutchritpongsa, S., & Rojmahamongkol, P. (2022). Electronic media use and food intake in Thai toddlers. Appetite,176, 106121.
Tomopoulos, S., Dreyer, B. P., Berkule, S., Fierman, A. H., Brockmeyer, C., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2010). Infant media exposure and toddler development. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine,164(12), 1105–1111. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.235
Tomopoulos, S., Dreyer, B. P., Valdez, P., Flynn, V., Foley, G., Berkule, S. B., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2007). Media content and externalizing behaviors in Latino toddlers. Ambulatory Pediatrics,7(3), 232–238.
Tomopoulos, S., Klass, P., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2019). Electronic children’s books: promises not yet fulfilled. Pediatrics, 143(4). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-0191
Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2013). The differential susceptibility to media effects model. Journal of Communication,63(2), 221–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12024
Vanderloo, L. M., Janus, M., Omand, J. A., Keown-Stoneman, C. D. G., Borkhoff, C. M., Duku, E., Mamdani, M., Lebovic, G., Parkin, P. C., Simpson, J. R., Tremblay, M. S., Maguire, J. L., & Birken, C. S. (2022). Children’s screen use and school readiness at 4–6 years : Prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health,22(1), 382. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12629-8
Vandewater, E. A., et al. (2005). When the television is always on: Heavy television exposure and young children’s development. American Behavioral Scientist,48(5), 562–577. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764204271496
Vijakkhana, N., Wilaisakditipakorn, T., Ruedeekhajorn, K., Pruksananonda, C., & Chonchaiya, W. (2015). Evening media exposure reduces night-time sleep. Acta Paediatrica, International Journal of Paediatrics,104(3), 306–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.12904
Wade, D. T., & Halligan, P. W. (2017). The biopsychosocial model of illness: A model whose time has come. Clinical Rehabilitation,31(8), 995–1004.
Wahi, G., Parkin, P. C., Beyene, J., Uleryk, E. M., & Birken, C. S. (2011). Effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing screen time in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine,165, 979–986.
Webster, E. K., Martin, C. K., & Staiano, A. E. (2019). Fundamental motor skills, screen-time, and physical activity in preschoolers. Journal of Sport and Health Science,8(2), 114–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2018.11.006
Wen, L. M., Rissel, C., Xu, H., Taki, S., Buchanan, L., Bedford, K., ... & Baur, L. A. (2020). Effects of telephone and short message service support on infant feeding practices, “tummy time”, and screen time at 6 and 12 months of child age: a 3-group randomized clinical trial. JAMA pediatrics,174(7), 657–664.
Wenhold, H., & Harrison, K. (2018). Television use and family mealtimes among a sample of US families with preschoolers. Journal of Children and Media,12(1), 98–115.
World Health Organization. (2019). Guidelines on physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep for children under 5 years of age. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/311664
Wright, C. M., Parkinson, K. N., Shipton, D., & Drewett, R. F. (2007). How do toddler eating problems relate to their eating behavior, food preferences, and growth? Pediatrics,120(4), e1069–e1075.
Zack, E., & Barr, R. (2016). The role of interactional quality in learning from touch screens during infancy: context matters. Frontiers in Psychology,7, 1264. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01264
Zimmerman, F. J., & Christakis, D. A. (2005). Children’s television viewing and cognitive outcomes: A longitudinal analysis of national data. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine,159(7), 619–625.
Zhu, R., Fang, H., Chen, M., Hu, X., Cao, Y., Yang, F., & Xia, K. (2020). Screen time and sleep disorder in preschool children: Identifying the safe threshold in a digital world. Public Health,186, 204–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.07.028