Public School Preparedness for School Shootings: A Phenomenological Overview of School Staff Perspectives

Allen, M., Burt, K., Bryan, E., Carter, D., Orsi, R., & Durkan, L. (2002). School counselors’ preparation for and participation in crisis intervention. Professional School Counseling, 6, 96–102. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental health disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author. Balbo, M., Cavallo, F., & Fernandez, I. (2019). Integrating EMDR in psychotherapy. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 29, 23–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/int0000136. Benard, B. (Ed.). (2004). Resiliency: What we have learned. San Francisco, CA: WestEd. Brunzell, T., Stokes, H., & Waters, L. (2019). Shifting teacher practice in trauma-affected classrooms: Practice pedagogy strategies within a trauma-informed positive education model. School Mental Health: A Multidisciplinary Research and Practice Journal, 1, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-018-09308-8. Cavanaugh, B. (2016). Trauma-informed classrooms and schools. Beyond Behavior, 25, 41–46. Center for Homeland Defense and Security at Naval Postgraduate School. (2019). K-12 school shooting database. Retrieved October 9, 2019, from https://www.chds.us/ssdb/category/graphs/. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017, October 20). Expediting the federal grant process with an administrative partner. Retrieved November 15, 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/publichealthgateway/grantsfunding/expediting.html. Cox, J. W., & Rich, S. (2018, March). Scarred by school shootings. The Washington Post. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/local/us-school-shootings-history/. Craig, S. (2017). Trauma-sensitive schools for the adolescent years: Promoting resiliency and healing, grades 6–12. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Duplechain, R., & Morris, R. (2014). School violence: Reported school shootings and making schools safer. Education, 135(2), 145–150. Dyregrov, A. (1997). Supporting traumatized children and teenagers: A guide to providing understanding and help. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Evans, A., & Coccoma, P. (2014). Trauma-informed care: How neuroscience influences practice. New York, NY: Routledge. Fein, A. H., Carlisle, C. S., & Isaacson, N. S. (2008). School shootings and counselor leadership: Four lessons from the field. Professional School Counseling, 11, 246–252. Gun Violence Archive. (2012). General Methodology. Retrieved from https://www.gunviolencearchive.org/methodology. Henry, S. (2009). School violence beyond Columbine: A complex problem in need of an interdisciplinary analysis. American Behavioral Scientist, 52, 1246–1265. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209332544. Jain, S., Buka, S. L., Subramanian, S. V., & Molnar, B. E. (2012). Protective factors for youth exposed to violence: Role of developmental assets in building emotional resilience. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10, 107–129. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204011424735. La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. K., Lai, B., & Jaccard, J. (2010). Hurricane related exposure experiences and stressors, other life events, and social support: Concurrent and prospective impact on children’s persistent posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 794–805. La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. K., Vernberg, E. M., & Prinstein, M. J. (1996). Symptoms of posttraumatic stress in children after Hurricane Andrew: a prospective study. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 64, 712–723. Lai, B. S., Osborne, M. C., Lee, N., Self-Brown, S., Esnard, A., & Kelley, M. L. (2018). Trauma-informed schools: Child disaster exposure, community violence, and somatic symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 238, 586–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.05.062. Lamb-Sinclair, A. (2018, February 22). Teaching while afraid: In an era of school shootings, educators are carrying burdens bigger than they ever imagined. The Atlantic. Retrieved August 1, 2019, from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2018/02/teaching-while-afraid/553931/. Langley, A. K., Nadeem, E., Kataoka, S. H., Stein, B. D., & Jaycox, L. H. (2010). Evidence-based mental health programs in schools: Barriers and facilitators of successful implementation. School Mental Health, 2, 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-010-9038-1. Larson, R. W. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. American Psychologist, 55, 170–183. Lee, J. H. (2013). School shootings in the U.S. public schools: Analysis through the eyes of an educator. Review of Higher Education and Self Learning, 6, 88–120. Lee, J.-S. (2019). Perceived support functions as a resilience in buffering the impact of trauma exposure on PTSD symptoms via intrusive rumination and entrapment in firefighters. PLoS ONE, 14, e0220454. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220454. Lerner, M., Volpe, J., & Lindell, B. (2003). A practical guide for crisis response in our schools: Acute traumatic stress management, empowering educators during traumatic events. Commack, NY: American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress. Levine, P. A. (2015). Trauma and memory: Brain and body in a search for the living past: A practical guide for understanding and working with traumatic memory. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. Love, R. A., & Cobb, N. (2012). Developing schools’ capacities to respond to community crisis: The Tennessee initiative. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 25, 158–163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.2012.00339.x. Luthar, S. S., & Zelano, L. B. (2003). Research on resilience: An integrative review. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 510–549). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Maio, J., & Jorgensen-Wagers, K. (2018). Efficacy of group cognitive processing therapy in an intensive outpatient trauma program for active duty service members with posttraumatic stress disorder. Best Practices in Mental Health, 14, 64–81. Martin, S. L., Ashely, O. S., White, L., Axelson, S., Clark, M., & Burrus, B. (2017). Incorporating trauma-informed care into school-based programs. Journal of School Health, 87, 958–967. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12568. Mazzei, P., & Jordan, M. (2019, March 28). You can’t put it behind you: School shootings leave long trail of trauma. The New York Times. Retrieved June 16, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/28/us/parkland-shooting-suicides-newtown-mental-health.html. Mendelson, T., Tandon, S. D., O’Brennan, L., Leaf, P. J., & Ialongo, N. S. (2015). Brief report: Moving prevention into schools: The impact of trauma-informed school-based intervention. Journal of Adolescence, 43, 142–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.05.017. Mongan, P., Hatcher, S. S., & Maschi, T. (2009). Etiology of school shootings: Utilizing a purposive, non-impulsive model for social work practice. Journal of Human Behavioral in Social Environment, 19, 635–645. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911350902910583. Moore, K. W., & Varela, R. E. (2010). Correlates of long-term posttraumatic stress symptoms in children following Hurricane Katrina. Child Psychiatry Human Development, 41, 239–250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-009-0165-6. Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Mutch, C., & Gawith, E. (2014). The New Zealand earthquakes and the role of schools in engaging children in emotional processing of disaster experiences. Pastoral Care in Education, 32, 54–67. National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (2018). School shootings and their effect on student mental health. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/trauma-types/terrorism-and-violence/school-shooting-resources. National Child Traumatic Stress Network, Schools Committee, & Committee, Schools. (2017). Creating, supporting, and sustaining trauma-informed schools: A system framework. Los Angeles, CA and Durham, NC: National Center for Child Traumatic Stress. Novotney, A. (2018, September). What happens to the survivors. Monitor on Psychology, 49(8). Retrieved December 13, 2018, from https://www.apa.org/monitor/2018/09/survivors. Office of the Texas Governor. (2018, August 30). Governor Abbott releases school safety action plan summary [Press release]. Retrieved May 30, 2018, from https://gov.texas.gov/news/post/governor-abbott-releases-school-safety-action-plan-summary. Openshaw, L. L. (2011). School-based support groups for traumatized students. School Psychology International, 32, 163–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034311400830. Paradice, D. (2017). An analysis of U.S. school shooting data (1840–2015). Education, 138, 135–144. Perfect, M., Turley, M., Carlson, J., Yohanna, J., & Saint Gilles, M. (2016). School-related outcomes of traumatic event exposure and traumatic stress symptoms in students: A systematic review of research from 1990 to 2015. School Mental Health, 8, 7–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9175-2. QSR International Pty Ltd. (2018). NVivo Version 12 [computer software]. Retrieved March 6, 2019, from https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo/nvivo-products/nvivo-12-plus. Reinbergs, E. J., & Fefer, S. A. (2017). Addressing trauma in schools: Multitiered service delivery options for practitioners. Psychology in Schools, 55, 250–263. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22105. Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., et al. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 823–832. Richmond, E. (2018). Parents’ fear for kids’ safety in schools reaches a two-decade high. U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved September 6, 2018, from https://www.usnews.com/news/education-news/articles/2018-07-17/parents-fear-for-kids-safety-in-schools-reaches-two-decade-high. Riley, P., & McDaniel, J. (2000). School violence, prevention, intervention, and crisis response. Professional School Counseling, 4, 120–125. Ritchie, E. C. (2003). Mass violence and early intervention: Best practice guidelines. Primary Psychiatry, 10, 43–48. Saldaña, J. (2016). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Salloum, A., & Overstreet, S. (2012). Grief and trauma intervention for children after disaster: Exploring coping skills versus trauma narration. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50, 19–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2012.01.001. Saltzman, W. R., Pynoos, R. S., Layne, C. M., Steinberg, A. M., & Aisenberg, E. (2001). Trauma- and grief focused intervention for adolescents exposed to community violence: Results of a school-based screening and group treatment protocol. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 5, 291–303. Saltzman, W. R., Pynoos, R. S., Layne, C. M., Steinberg, A. M., & Aisenberg, E. (2003). School-based trauma and grief intervention for adolescents. Prevention Researcher, 10, 8–11. Suomalainen, L., Haravuori, H., Berg, N., Kiviruusu, O., & Marttunen, M. (2011). A controlled follow-up study of adolescents exposed to a school shooting—Psychological consequences after four months. European Psychiatry, 26, 490–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.07.007. School shootings and their effect on student mental health. (2018). School shootings and their effect on student mental health. [Special Report]. Curriculum Review, 58(4), 8. Teasley, M. L. (2018). School shootings and the need for more school-based mental health services. Children & Schools, 40, 131–134. https://doi.org/10.1093/cs/cdy015. Thomas, M. S., Crosby, S., & Vanderhaar, J. (2019). Trauma-informed practices in schools across two decades: An interdisciplinary review of research. Review of Research in Education, 43, 422–452. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18821123. Tosone, C., Nuttman-Shwartz, O., & Stephens, T. (2012). Shared trauma: When the professional is personal. Clinical Social Work Journal, 40, 231–239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-012-0395-0. U. S. Department of Justice. (2013). A study of active shooter incidents in the United States between 2000 and 2013. Retrieved November 15, 2017, from https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/active-shooter-study-2000-2013-1.pdf/view. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from childhood to midlife: Risk, resilience and recovery. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Wiest-Stevenson, C., & Lee, C. (2016). Trauma-informed schools. Journal of Evidence-Informed Social Work, 13, 498–503. https://doi.org/10.1080/23761407.2016.1166855. Wolfe, E., & Walker, C. (2019, November 19). In 46 weeks this year, there have been 45 school shootings. CNN. Retrieved November 21, 2019, from https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/15/us/2019-us-school-shootings-trnd/index.html. Yan, H., & Park, M. (2019, March 26). 1 week. 3 suicides. 1 tragic connection to school massacres. CNN. Retrieved April 12, 2019, from https://www.cnn.com/2019/03/26/us/school-shootings-suicides/index.html.