Presence of Noroviruses and Other Enteric Viruses in Sewage and Surface Waters in The Netherlands

Applied and Environmental Microbiology - Tập 71 Số 3 - Trang 1453-1461 - 2005
Willemijn J. Lodder1, Ana Maria de Roda Husman1
1Microbiological Laboratory for Health Protection, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands

Tóm tắt

ABSTRACT Since virus concentrations in drinking waters are generally below the detection limit, the infectious risk from drinking water consumption requires assessment from the virus concentrations in source waters and removal efficiency of treatment processes. In this study, we estimated from reverse transcription-PCR on 10-fold serially diluted RNA that noroviruses, the most prevalent waterborne gastroenteritis agents, were present at 4 (0.2 to 38) to 4,900 (303 to 4.6 × 10 4 ) PCR-detectable units (PDU) per liter of river water (ranges are given in parentheses). These virus concentrations are still high compared with 896 to 7,499 PDU/liter of treated sewage and 5,111 to 850,000 PDU/liter in raw sewage. Sequencing analyses designated human norovirus GGII.4 Lordsdale as the most prevalent strain in the sampling period 1998 to 1999 in both sewage and surface waters. Other GGII strains were also very abundant, indicating that the majority of the virus contamination was derived from urban sewage, although very divergent strains and one animal strain were also detected in the surface and sewage waters. Rotaviruses were also detected in two large rivers (the Maas and the Waal) at 57 to 5,386 PDU/liter. The high virus concentrations determined by PCR may in part be explained by the detection of virus RNA instead of infectious particles. Indeed, reoviruses and enteroviruses that can be cultured were present at much lower levels, of 0.3 to 1 and 2 to 10 PFU/liter, respectively. Assuming 1% of the noroviruses and rotaviruses to be infectious, a much higher disease burden than for other viruses can be expected, not only because of the higher levels but also because of these viruses' higher infectivity and attack rates.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

10.1128/jcm.33.1.64-71.1995

10.1086/315589

10.1046/j.1365-2893.1997.00145.x

10.3201/eid0806.010371

10.1128/jcm.28.3.495-503.1990

10.1017/S0950268801005556

10.2175/106143002X140378

10.1128/aem.51.4.790-812.1986

10.1128/AEM.70.9.5089-5093.2004

de Roda Husman A. M. E. J. M. Penders A. P. Krom G. L. Bakker and W. Hoogenboezem. 2004. Viruses in the Rhine and source waters for drinking water production. RIVM report 330200 003/2004. National Institute of Public Health and the Environment Bilthoven The Netherlands.

10.1093/aje/154.7.666

10.1099/vir.0.19478-0

Fleischer, J., K. Schlafmann, R. Otchwemah, and K. Botzenhart. 2000. Elimination of enteroviruses, other enteric viruses, F-specific coliphages, somatic coliphages and E. coli in four sewage treatment plants of Southern Germany. J. Water Supply Res. Technol.49:127-137.

10.1128/AEM.69.6.3158-3164.2003

10.1128/aem.61.4.1226-1231.1995

10.1016/S0168-1605(97)00075-5

Goldstein, S. T., D. D. Juranek, O. Ravenholt, A. W. Hightower, D. G. Martin, J. L. Mesnik, S. D. Griffiths, A. J. Bryant, R. R. Reich, and B. L. Herwaldt. 1996. Cryptosporidiosis: an outbreak associated with drinking water despite state-of-the-art water treatment. Ann. Intern. Med.124:459-468.

10.1086/315591

10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113662

Havelaar, A. H., M. van Olphen, and J. F. Schijven. 1995. Removal and inactivation of viruses by drinking water treatment processes under full scale conditions. Water Sci. Technol.31:55-62.

10.1086/381534

10.1128/AEM.70.1.87-95.2004

10.1016/S0043-1354(03)00439-1

Hovi, T., M. Stenvik, H. Partanen, and A. Kangas. 2001. Poliovirus surveillance by examining sewage specimens. Quantitative recovery of virus after introduction into sewerage at remote upstream location. Epidemiol. Infect.127:101-106.

10.1126/science.1077905

10.1128/AEM.69.12.7377-7384.2003

10.1086/315573

Koopmans, M., E. van Strien, and H. Vennema. 2002. Molecular epidemiology of human caliciviruses, p. 509-539. In U. Desselberger and J. Gray (ed.), Viral gastroenteritis. Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

10.1086/315145

10.1038/nm860

10.1128/JVI.73.1.819-825.1999

10.1128/AEM.65.12.5624-5627.1999

10.1046/j.1365-2672.2000.00837.x

10.1017/S0950268899004495

10.1097/00001432-200306000-00010

10.1111/j.1348-0421.1993.tb03214.x

10.1023/A:1007490119187

Mood M. F. A. Graybill and D. C. Boes. 1974. Introduction to the theory of statistics. McGraw-Hill Book Company Singapore Republic of Singapore.

10.1086/315586

10.3201/eid0912.030112

10.1017/S0950268803001894

10.1128/aem.54.2.371-374.1988

10.1080/10643380091184174

10.1007/s007050050038

10.1016/S0923-2508(00)90132-3

10.1016/S0923-2508(01)01190-1

10.1128/AEM.69.12.7181-7187.2003

Emerg. Infect. Dis.

10.2166/wst.1989.0098

10.1016/S0043-1354(01)00030-6

10.1111/0272-4332.204048

Res. Microbiol.

10.3201/eid0601.000106

10.1016/S1386-6532(02)00126-9

10.1128/AEM.69.7.3919-3923.2003

10.1086/517325

10.1016/j.jviromet.2003.11.001

Westrell T. P. Teunis H. van den Berg W. Lodder H. Ketelaars T. A. Stenström and A. M. de Roda Husman. Short and long term fluctuations of norovirus concentration in surface water and their implications for public health. Submitted for publication.

Thông tin
Thông tin xuất bản

Applied and Environmental Microbiology

Tập 71 Số 3

1453-1461

Thông tin tác giả