Inclusive hunting: examining Faroese whaling using the theory of socio-cultural viability
Tóm tắt
Whaling is a globally controversial topic, and Faroese drive-style whaling, grindadráp, is no exception. A complex common-pool resource (CPR) institution, viewable from multiple moral, social, economic and political viewpoints, grindadráp is a challenge to assess. Responding to calls to utilise more relationship-centred and multi-perspectival approaches to studying CPRs, this article examines grindadráp utilising the theory of socio-cultural viability, which asserts diverse understandings of the world can be classified within a fourfold typology and that ‘successful’ institutions draw on all four social solidarities in dealing with challenges that arise. The analysis reveals how throughout grindadráp’s history its place in Faroese society has been maintained through the enforcement of a largely egalitarian conceptualisation. However, in meeting various challenges around the distribution of meat, sustainability and killing methods, the institution has accepted solutions utilising alternative conceptualisations. It is this adaptability which has allowed grindadráp to remain a popular part of Faroese society, even as dependence on pilot whale meat has declined. The issue of toxins in pilot whale meat is found to be arguably the greatest threat to grindadráp, undermining the egalitarian foundations of the practice, the response to which is something that Faroese society is currently in the process of negotiation.
Tài liệu tham khảo
6, P., and G. Mars. 2008. Introduction. In The institutional dynamics of culture volume I, eds. P. 6 and G. Mars, xv-xli. Farnham: Ashgate.
AMAP. 2015. Welcome to AMAP. http://www.amap.no/about. Accessed 15 June 2015.
Bloch, D. 2007. Pilot whales and the whale drive. Tórshavn: H.N. Jacobsens Bókahandil.
Buckland, S.T., D. Bloch, K.L. Cattanach, T. Gunnlaugsson, K. Hoydal, S. Lens, and J. Sigurjónsson. 1993. Distribution and abundance of long-finned pilot whales in the North Atlantic, estimated from NASS-87 and NASS-89 data. In Biology of Northern Hemisphere Pilot Whales, ed. G.P. Donovan, C.H. Lockyer, and A.R. Martin, 33–50. Cambridge: International Whaling Commission.
Cannady, K. 2014. Dancing on the fissures: alternative senses of crisis in the Faroe Islands. In Crisis in the Nordic nations and beyond, ed. K. Lóftsdottir and L. Jensen, 87–100. Farnham: Ashgate.
Dam, M., and D. Bloch. 2000. Screening of mercury and persistent organochlorine pollutants in long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas) in the Faroe Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40: 1090–1099.
Donovan, G.P., C.H. Lockyer, and A.R. Martin (eds.). 1993. Biology of Northern Hemisphere Pilot Whales. Cambridge: International Whaling Commission.
Dugmore, A.J., T.H. McGovern, R. Streeter, C.K. Madsen, K. Smiarowski, and C. Keller. 2013. ‘Clumsy solutions’ and ‘elegant failures’: lessons on climate change adaptation from the settlement of the North Atlantic islands. In A changing environment for human security, ed. L. Sygna, K. O’Brien, and J. Wolf, 435–451. Abingdon: Routledge.
Fielding, R. 2010. Environmental change as a threat to the pilot whale hunt in the Faroe Islands. Polar Research 29: 430–438.
Fielding, R. 2013a. Coastal geomorphology and culture in the spatiality of whaling in the Faroe Islands. Area 45: 88–97.
Fielding, R. 2013b. Whaling futures: a survey of Faroese and Vincentian youth on the topic of artisanal whaling. Society and Natural Resources 26: 810–826.
Fielding, R., J. Davis, and B.E. Singleton. 2015. Mutual aid, environmental policy, and the regulation of Faroese pilot whaling. Human Geography 8: 37–48.
Føroya Landsstýri. 2015. Benefits and disadvantages. http://www.whaling.fo/en/food/benefits-and-disadvantages/. Accessed 24 June 2015.
Gaffin, D. 1996. In place: spatial and social order in a Faeroe Islands community. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press.
Gaini, F. 2013. Lessons of islands. Tórshavn: Fróðskapur Faroe University Press.
Gallup Føroyar. 2014. Gallupkanning vegna Prei. April 2014. Um Grind. Torshavn: Gallup Føroyar.
Hagstova Føroya. 2014. Census 2011: CS 8.2.1 Private households by availability of supplement food sources, boat, type of dwelling and household place of residence. http://statbank.hagstova.fo/pxweb/en/H2/H2__MT/. Accessed 29 Nov 2015.
Hagstova Føroya. 2015. Whale hunts. http://www.hagstova.fo/en/statbank/business-statistics/fishing-aqua-and-agriculture/whale-hunts. Accessed 3 Dec 2015.
Heilsufrøðiliga Starvsstovan. 2011. Dietary recommendation on the consumption of pilot whale meat and blubber. https://www.hfs.fo/webcenter/ShowProperty?nodeId=%2Fhfs2-cs%2FHFS010912%2F%2FidcPrimaryFile&revision=latestreleased. Accessed 23 Aug 2014.
Joensen, J.P. 2009. Pilot whaling in the Faroe Islands. Torshavn: Fróðskapur. Faroe University Press.
Kerins, S. 2010. A thousand years of whaling. Edmonton: CCI Press.
Law, J. 2004. After method: mess in social science research. Abingdon: Routledge.
Ministry of Fisheries. 2013. Kunngerð um grind. Tórshavn: Landsstýri.
Monteiro, S.S., P. Méndez-Fernandez, S. Piertney, C.F. Moffat, M. Ferreira, J.V. Vingada, A. López, A. Brownlow, P. Jepson, B. Mikkelsen, M. Niemeyer, J.C. Carvaljo, and G.J. Pierce. 2015. Long-finned pilot whale population diversity and structure in Atlantic waters assessed through biogeochemical and genetic markers. Marine Ecology Progress Series 536: 243–257.
Mortensen, K.P. 2006. The management decision-making process in NAMMCO member countries. Faroe Islands. In Conference on user knowledge and scientific knowledge in management decision-making. Reykjavík, Iceland 4–7 January 2003, ed. G.K. Hovelsrud and C. Wisnes, 83. Tromsø: NAMMCO.
NAMMCO. 2012. NAMMCO Annual Report 2011. Tromsø: NAMMCO.
NAMMCO committee on hunting methods. 2014. Instruction manual for pilot whaling. Tromsø: NAMMCO.
Nauerby, T. 1996. No nation is an island: language, culture and national identity in the Faroe Islands. Århus: SNAI-North Atlantic Publications.
Neves-Graça, K. 2004. Revisiting the tragedy of the commons: ecological dilemmas of whale watching in the Azores. Human Organization 63: 289–300.
Ney, S.M., and M. Verweij. 2015. Messy institutions for wicked problems: how to generate clumsy solutions. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 33: 1679–1696.
Nightingale, A.J. 2011. Beyond design principles: subjectivity, emotion, and the (ir)rational commons. Society and Natural Resources 24: 119–132.
Olafsson, Á. 1990. Faroese whale- and whaling-policy. North Atlantic Studies 2: 130–137.
Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the commons: the evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Peterson, N.D. 2014. Breaking the bounds of rationality: values, relationships, and decision-making in Mexican fishing communities. Conservation and Society 12: 245–256.
Peterson, N.D., and C. Isenhour. 2014. Introduction: moving beyond the ‘rational actor’ in environmental governance and conservation. Conservation and Society 12: 229–232.
Sanderson, K. 1992. Grindadráp. a textual history of whaling in the Faroes to 1900. M.Phil thesis. Sydney: University of Sydney.
Schwartz, B. 1991. A pluralistic model of culture. Contemporary Sociology 20: 764–766.
Singleton, B.E. 2016a. Clumsiness and elegance in environmental management. Environmental Politics 25: 414–433.
Singleton, B.E. 2016b. Love-iathan, the meat whale and hidden people: ordering Faroese pilot whaling. Journal of Political Ecology 23: 26–48.
Stoker, G. 2004. Designing institutions for governance in complex environments: Normative rational choice and cultural institutional theories explored and contrasted. In Economic and Social Research Council Fellowship, Paper No1, 1–52.
Tansey, J., and T. O’Riordan. 1999. Cultural theory and risk: a review. Health, Risk and Society 1: 71–90.
Tansey, J., and S. Rayner. 2009. Cultural theory and risk. In Handbook of risk and crisis communication, ed. R.L. Heath and H.D. O’Hair, 53–79. New York: Routledge.
Thompson, M. 2003. Cultural theory, climate change and clumsiness. Economic and Political Weekly 38: 5107–5112.
Thompson, M. 2008. Organising and disorganising. Axminster: Triarchy Press Limited.
Thompson, M. 2013. Clumsy solutions to environmental change: lessons from cultural theory. In A changing environment for human security, ed. L. Sygna, K. O’Brien, and J. Wolf, 424–432. Abingdon: Routledge.
Thompson, M., M. Verweij, and R.J. Ellis. 2006. Why and how culture matters. In The Oxford handbook of contextual political analysis, ed. R.E. Goodin and C. Tilly, 319–340. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Thorsteinsson, A. 1986. Hvussu gamalt er grindadrapið? Varðin 53: 65–6.
Verweij, M., M. Douglas, R. Ellis, C. Engel, F. Hendriks, S. Lohmann, S. Ney, et al. 2011a. The case for clumsiness. In Clumsy solutions for a complex world, ed. M. Verweij and M. Thompson, 1–27. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
Verweij, M., M. Thompson, and C. Engel. 2011b. Clumsy conclusions: how to do policy and research in a complex world. In Clumsy solutions for a complex world, ed. M. Verweij and M. Thompson, 241–249. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Weihe, P., and H.D. Joensen. 2008. Tilmæli um at gevast at eta grind. http://www.folkaheilsa.fo/news-newskostur+tilmaeli+um+grind.htm. Accessed 24 June 2015.
Workman, M. 2014. Q&A with Sea Shepherd. http://www.faroepodcast.com/2014/10/podcast-225-q-with-sea-shepherd.html. Accessed 14 Dec 2014.
Wylie, J. 1987. The Faroe Islands. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press.
Wylie, J. 1993. Too much of a good thing: crises of glut in the Faroe Islands and Dominica. Comparative Studies in Society and History 35: 352–389.
Wylie, J., and D. Margolin. 1981. The ring of dancers. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.