Health hazards of China’s lead-acid battery industry: a review of its market drivers, production processes, and health impacts
Tóm tắt
Despite China’s leaded gasoline phase out in 2000, the continued high rates of lead poisoning found in children’s blood lead levels reflect the need for identifying and controlling other sources of lead pollution. From 2001 to 2007, 24% of children in China studied (N = 94,778) were lead poisoned with levels exceeding 100 μg/L. These levels stand well above the global average of 16%. These trends reveal that China still faces significant public health challenges, with millions of children currently at risk of lead poisoning. The unprecedented growth of China’s lead-acid battery industry from the electric bike, automotive, and photovoltaic industries may explain these persistently high levels, as China remains the world’s leading producer, refiner, and consumer of both lead and lead-acid batteries. This review assesses the role of China’s rising lead-acid battery industry on lead pollution and exposure. It starts with a synthesis of biological mechanisms of lead exposure followed by an analysis of the key technologies driving the rapid growth of this industry. It then details the four main stages of lead battery production, explaining how each stage results in significant lead loss and pollution. A province-level accounting of each of these industrial operations is also included. Next, reviews of the literature describe how this industry may have contributed to mass lead poisonings throughout China. Finally, the paper closes with a discussion of new policies that address the lead-acid battery industry and identifies policy frameworks to mitigate exposure. This paper is the first to integrate the market factors, production processes, and health impacts of China’s growing lead-acid battery industry to illustrate its vast public health consequences. The implications of this review are two-fold: it validates calls for a nationwide assessment of lead exposure pathways and levels in China as well as for a more comprehensive investigation into the health impacts of the lead-acid battery industry. The continuous growth of this industry signals the urgent need for effective regulatory action to protect the health and lives of China’s future generations.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Tsai PL, Hatfield TH: Global benefits from the phaseout of leaded fuel. J Environ Health. 2011, 74: 8-14.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Update: blood lead levels -- United States, 1991–1994. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1997, 46: 141-146.
World Health Organization: Childhood lead poisoning. 2010, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Document Production Services
He K, Wang S, Zhang J: Blood lead levels of children and its trend in China. Sci Total Environ. 2009, 407: 3986-3993. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.03.018.
Chen HY, Li AJ, Finlow DE: The lead and lead-acid battery industries during 2002 and 2007 in China. J Power Sources. 2009, 191: 22-27. 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.12.140.
Research in China: China BI portal- China lead-acid battery industry report. 2011,http://www.researchinchina.com/htmls/report/2012/6394.html, –2012,
Chen L, Xu Z, Liu M, Huang Y, Fan R, Su Y, Hu G, Peng X, Peng X: Lead exposure assessment from study near a lead-acid battery factory in China. Sci Total Environ. 2012, 429: 191-198.
United Nations Environment Programme, United Nations Children’s Fund: Childhood lead poisoning: information for advocacy and action. 1997, New York: UNEP-UNICEF information series
Sanders T, Liu Y, Buchner V, Tchounwou PB: Neurotoxic effects and biomarkers of lead exposure: a review. Rev Environ Health. 2009, 24: 15-45.
Counter SA, Vahter M, Laurell G, Buchanan LH, Ortega F, Skerfving S: High lead exposure and auditory sensory-neural function in Andean children. Environ Health Perspect. 1997, 105: 522-526. 10.1289/ehp.97105522.
Counter SA, Buchanan LH, Rosas HD, Ortega F: Neurocognitive effects of chronic lead intoxication in Andean children. J Neurol Sci. 1998, 160: 47-53. 10.1016/S0022-510X(98)00180-4.
Banks EC, Ferretti LE, Shucard DW: Effects of low level lead exposure on cognitive function in children: a review of behavioral, neuropsychological and biological evidence. Neurotoxicology. 1998, 18: 237-282.
Tong S, von Schirnding YE, Prapamontol T: Environmental lead exposure: a public health problem of global dimensions. Bull World Health Organ. 2000, 78: 1068-1077.
Hsiao CY, Wua HD, Laia JS, Kuo HW: A longitudinal study of the effects of long-term exposure to lead among lead battery factory workers in Taiwan (1989–1999). Sci Total Environ. 2001, 279: 151-158. 10.1016/S0048-9697(01)00762-8.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: Toxicological Profile for Lead. 2007, Atlanta, GA: Public Health Service
Liu J, McCauley L, Compher C, Yan C, Shen X, Needleman H, Pinto-Martin J: Regular breakfast and blood lead levels among preschool children. Environ Health. 2011, 10: 28-10.1186/1476-069X-10-28.
Lidsky TI, Schneider JS: Lead neurotoxicity in children: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates. Brain. 2003, 126: 5-19. 10.1093/brain/awg014.
Zota AR, Schaider LA, Ettinger AS, Wright RO, Shine JP, Spengler JD: Metal sources and exposures in the homes of young children living near a mining-impacted Superfund site. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2011, 21: 495-505. 10.1038/jes.2011.21.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Preventing lead poisoning in young children. 2005, Atlanta, Georgia: CDC
Pichery C, Bellanger M, Zmirou-Navier D, Glorennec P, Hartemann P, Grandjean P: Childhood lead exposure in France: benefit estimation and partial cost-benefit analysis of lead hazard control. Environ Health. 2011, 10: 44-10.1186/1476-069X-10-44.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC response to advisory committee on childhood lead poisoning prevention. 2012, Atlanta, Georgia: CDC
Haefliger P, Mathieu-Nolf M, Lociciro S, Ndiaye C, Coly M, Diouf A, Faye A, Sow A, Tempowski J, Pronczuk J, Filipe A, Bertollini R, Neira M: Mass lead intoxication from informal used lead-acid battery recycling in Dakar, Senegal. Environ Health Perspect. 2009, 117: 1535-1540. 10.1289/ehp.0900696.
Ministry of Industry and Information Technology: Comprehensive plan for the prevention of heavy metal pollution from the battery industry. 2010, China: Draft plan
Occupational Knowledge International, Global Village Beijing, Institute of Public and Environmental Affairs: Health and environmental impacts from lead battery manufacturing and recycling in China. 2011, San Francisco, CA: OK International
Wang JZ, Cao GQ, Zhang R: Lead-acid battery development and environmental impact. China Metal Bulletin. 2012, 21: 16-21.
China Environment Forum: Lead batteries: re-charging China’s e-waste disposal. 2008, China: A China Environmental Health Project Research Brief
Yao LC, Zhang BG: Lead-acid battery industry will enter a rapid development track. China Bicycle. 2011, 1: 56-57.
Ji S, Cherry C, Bechle M, Wu Y, Marshall JD: Electric vehicles in China: emissions and health impacts. Environ Sci Technol. 2012, 46: 2018-2024. 10.1021/es202347q.
Annual sales of electric bicycles will surpass 47 million by. 2018,http://www.pikeresearch.com/newsroom/annual-sales-of-electric-bicycles-will-surpass-47-million-by-2018-2,
Weinert J, Ma C, Cherry C: The transition to electric bikes in China: history and key reasons for rapid growth. Transportation. 2007, 34: 301-318. 10.1007/s11116-007-9118-8.
Cherry C, Weinert J, Ma C: Comparative environmental impacts of electric bikes in China. Transp Res Part D. 2009, 14: 281-290. 10.1016/j.trd.2008.11.003.
2010年世界汽车产量前十位国家排名. (The ranking of the top ten countries of world automobile production in 2010).http://www.auto-stats.org.cn/ReadArticle.asp?NewsID=6943,
Number of cars in China hits 100m.http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2011-09/17/content_13725715.htm,
Hao H, Wang H, Yi R: Hybrid modeling of China’s vehicle ownership and projection through 2050. Energy. 2011, 36: 1351-1361. 10.1016/j.energy.2010.10.055.
Huo H, Wang M, Johnson L, He D: Projection of Chinese motor vehicle growth, oil demand, and CO2 emissions through 2050. Transp Res Rec: J Transp Res Board. 2038, 2007: 66-77.
Association EPI: Global market outlook for photovoltaics until 2015. 2011, Brussels, Belgium: EPIA
International Energy Agency: China national photovoltaics status report 2012. 2012, China: Co-operative programme on photovoltaic power systems
Chang Y, Mao X, Zhao Y, Feng S, Chen H, Finlowa D: Lead-acid battery use in the development of renewable energy systems in China. J Pow Sources. 2009, 191: 176-183. 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.02.030.
Department of Energy: FY 2009 annual progress report for energy storage R&D. 2010, Washington DC: Department of Energy
Gottesfeld P, Cherry CR: Lead emissions from solar photovoltaic energy systems in China and India. Energy Policy. 2011, 39: 4939-4946. 10.1016/j.enpol.2011.06.021.
Mao JS, Cao J, Graedel TE: Losses to the environment from the multilevel cycle of anthropogenic lead. Environ Pollut. 2009, 157: 2670-2677. 10.1016/j.envpol.2009.05.003.
Mao J, Lu Z, Yang Z: The eco-efficiency of lead in China’s lead-acid battery system. J Ind Ecol. 2006, 10: 185-197.
Hoffmann U, Wilson B: Requirements for, and benefits of, environmentally sound and economically viable management of battery recycling in the Philippines in the wake of Basel Convention trade restrictions. J Pow Sources. 2000, 88: 115-123. 10.1016/S0378-7753(99)00519-4.
各地公布铅蓄电池行业企业名单. (Public announcement listing lead-acid battery industry enterprises).http://www.mep.gov.cn/zhxx/hjyw/201108/t20110802_215645.htm,
Electric machines and apparatuses manufacturing- yearly industrial data (2003- ) from China’s statistical yearbooks.http://www.chinadataonline.com/,
U.S. Geological Survey: U.S. geological survey minerals yearbook- 2009. 2011, Reston, Virginia: USGS
Wang S, Zhang J: Blood lead levels in children, China. Environ Res. 2006, 101: 412-418. 10.1016/j.envres.2005.11.007.
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific: Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2011. 2011, Thailand: United Nations Publication
Ye X, Wong O: Lead exposure, lead poisoning, and lead regulatory standards in China, 1990–2005. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2006, 46: 157-162. 10.1016/j.yrtph.2006.04.003.
Falk H: International environmental health for the pediatrician: case study of lead poisoning. Pediatrics. 2003, 112: 259-264.
Gottesfeld P, Pokhrel A: Review: lead exposure in battery manufacturing and recycling in developing countries and among children in nearby communities. J Occup Environ Hyg. 2011, 8: 520-532. 10.1080/15459624.2011.601710.
Occupational Knowledge International: Summary of mass lead poisoning incidents. 2012, San Francisco, CA: OK International
关于加强铅蓄电池及再生铅行业污染防治工作的通知. (Strengthening pollution prevention and control of lead-acid batteries and secondary lead industry).http://www.mep.gov.cn/gkml/hbb/bwj/201105/t20110519_210865.htm,
铅蓄电池行业准入条件. (Lead battery industry access conditions).http://www.mep.gov.cn/gkml/hbb/gwy/201205/t20120531_230667.htm,
Clark CS, Rampal KG, Thuppil V, Roda SM, Succop P, Menrath W, Chen CK, Adebamowo EO, Agbede OA, Sridhar MKC, Adebamowo CA, Zakaria Y, El-Safty A, Shinde RM, Yu J: Lead levels in new enamel household paints from Asia, Africa and South America. Environ Res. 2009, 109: 930-936. 10.1016/j.envres.2009.07.002.
Ewers L, Clark CS, Peng H, Roda SM, Menrath B, Lind C, Succop P: Lead levels in new residential enamel paints in Taipei, Taiwan and comparison with those in mainland China. Environ Res. 2011, 111: 757-760. 10.1016/j.envres.2011.05.011.
Schmidt C: Face to face with toy safety: understanding an unexpected threat. Environ Health Perspect. 2008, 116: 71-76.