Global maize production, consumption and trade: trends and R&D implications

Springer Science and Business Media LLC - Tập 14 Số 5 - Trang 1295-1319 - 2022
Olaf Erenstein1, Moti Jaleta2, Kai Sonder1, Khondoker Abdul Mottaleb1, Boddupalli M. Prasanna3
1International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Carr. Mex-Ver Km. 45, El Batan, 56237, Texcoco, CP, Mexico
2International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
3International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Nairobi, Kenya

Tóm tắt

Abstract

Since its domestication some 9,000 years ago, maize (Zea maysL.; corn) has played an increasing and diverse role in global agri-food systems. Global maize production has surged in the past few decades, propelled by rising demand and a combination of technological advances, yield increases and area expansion. Maize is already the leading cereal in terms of production volume and is set to become the most widely grown and traded crop in the coming decade. It is a versatile multi-purpose crop, primarily used as a feed globally, but also is important as a food crop, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America, besides other non-food uses. This paper reviews maize production, consumption, and international trade to examine the changing trends in global supply and demand conditions over the past quarter century and the implications for research and development (R&D), particularly in the Global South. The inclusiveness and sustainability of the ongoing transformation of agri-food systems in the Global South merit particular attention. There is a need for further investments in R&D, particularly to enhance maize’s food and livelihood security roles and to sustainably intensify maize production while staying within the planetary boundaries.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Abate, T., Shiferaw, B., Menkir, A., Wegary, D., Kebede, Y., Tesfaye, K., Kassie, M., Bogale, G., Tadesse, B., & Keno, T. (2015). Factors that transformed maize productivity in Ethiopia. Food Security, 7, 965–981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-015-0488-z

Afidchao, M. M., Musters, C. J. M., Wossink, A., Balderama, O. F., & De Snoo, G. R. (2014). Analysing the farm level economic impact of GM corn in the Philippines. NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences, 70, 113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.njas.2014.05.008

Alvarez, F., Manalo, A., & Clarete, R. (2021). Economic Assessment of GM Corn Use in the Philippines. International Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 5, 115–128. https://doi.org/10.26855/ijfsa.2021.03.016

Areal, F. J., Riesgo, L., & Rodriguez-Cerezo, E. (2013). Economic and agronomic impact of commercialized GM crops: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Agricultural Science, 151, 7–33. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859612000111

Assefa, B. T., Chamberlin, J., Reidsma, P., Silva, J. V., & van Ittersum, M. K. (2020). Unravelling the variability and causes of smallholder maize yield gaps in Ethiopia. Food Security, 12, 83–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00981-4

Atlin, G. N., Palacios, N., Babu, R., Das, B., Twumasi-Afriyie, S., Friesen, D. K., De Groote, H., Vivek, B., & Pixley, K. V. (2011). Quality Protein Maize: Progress and Prospects. In: Janick, J. (Ed.), Plant Breeding Reviews, Vol 34. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 83–130. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470880579.ch3

Awika, J. (2011). Major cereal grains production and use around the world. In: Awika, J. M., Piironen, V., & Bean, S. (Eds.), Advances in cereal science: implications to food processing and health promotion. American Chemical Society Atlantic City, NJ, Washington DC, pp. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2011-1089.ch001

Bandyopadhyay, R., Ortega-Beltran, A., Akande, A., Mutegi, C., Atehnkeng, J., Kaptoge, L., Senghor, A., Adhikari, B., & Cotty, P. (2016). Biological control of aflatoxins in Africa: Current status and potential challenges in the face of climate change. World Mycotoxin Journal, 9, 771–789. https://doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2016.2130

Bellon, M. R., Hodson, D., Bergvinson, D., Beck, D., Martinez-Romero, E., & Montoya, Y. (2005). Targeting agricultural research to benefit poor farmers: Relating poverty mapping to maize environments in Mexico. Food Policy, 30, 476–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2005.09.003

Blare, T., Donovan, J., & Garcia-Medina, M. (2020). The Right Tortilla for the Right Occasion: Variation in Consumers’ Willingness to Pay for Blue Maize Tortillas Based on Utilization. Journal of Food Products Marketing, 26, 564–579. https://doi.org/10.1080/10454446.2020.1832637

Blümmel, M., Grings, E., & Erenstein, O. (2013). Potential for dual-purpose maize varieties to meet changing maize demands: Synthesis. Field Crops Research, 153, 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2013.10.006

Boddupalli, P., Suresh, L. M., Mwatuni, F., Beyene, Y., Makumbi, D., Gowda, M., Olsen, M., Hodson, D., Worku, M., Mezzalama, M., Molnar, T., Dhugga, K. S., Wangai, A., Gichuru, L., Angwenyi, S., Alemayehu, Y., Grønbech-Hansen, J., & Lassen, P. (2020). Maize lethal necrosis (MLN): Efforts toward containing the spread and impact of a devastating transboundary disease in sub-Saharan Africa. Virus Research, 282, 197943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2020.197943

Boucher, S., Lybbert, T., Carter, M., Malacarne, J., Erenstein, O., Marenya, P., Flatnes, J. E., & Paul, L. (2019). Bundling innovative risk management technologies to accelerate agricultural growth and improve nutrition. Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Markets, Risk & Resilience, 2015–2018 Project Report. University of California, Davis. https://basis.ucdavis.edu/publication/bundling-innovative-risk-management-technologies-accelerate-agricultural-growth-and

Bouwman, A. F., & Booij, H. (1998). Global use and trade of feedstuffs and consequences for the nitrogen cycle. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 52, 261–267. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009763706114

Bright, E. A., Rose, A. N., Urban, M. L., & McKee, J., (2018). LandScan 2017 High-Resolution Global Population Data Set. Computer software. Version 00. Oak Ridge National Lab (ORNL), Oak Ridge, TN (United States). https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1524426

Brookes, G., & Barfoot, P. (2020). GM crop technology use 1996–2018: Farm income and production impacts. GM Crops & Food, 11, 242–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2020.1779574

Brookes, G., & Dinh, T. X. (2021). The impact of using genetically modified (GM) corn/maize in Vietnam: Results of the first farm-level survey. GM Crops & Food, 12, 71–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2020.1816800

Brooks, S. (2014). Enabling adaptation? Lessons from the new “Green Revolution” in Malawi and Kenya. Climatic Change, 122, 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-0992-0

Brouwer, I. D., McDermott, J., & Ruben, R. (2020). Food systems everywhere: Improving relevance in practice. Global Food Security, 26, 100398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100398

Burdon, J. J., & Zhan, J. (2020). Climate change and disease in plant communities. PLoS Biology, 18, e3000949. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000949

Byerlee, D. (2020). The globalization of hybrid maize, 1921–70. Journal of Global History, 15, 101–122. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1740022819000354

Cabrera-Ponce, J. L., Valencia-Lozano, E., & Trejo-Saavedra, D. L. (2019). Genetic Modifications of Corn. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (Ed.), Corn (Third Edition). AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. 43–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00003-6

Cairns, J., Hellin, J., Sonder, K., Araus, J., MacRobert, J., Thierfelder, C., & Prasanna, B. M. (2013). Adapting maize production to climate change in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Security, 5, 345–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-013-0256-x

Cassidy, E. S., West, P. C., Gerber, J. S., & Foley, J. A. (2013). Redefining agricultural yields: From tonnes to people nourished per hectare. Environmental Research Letters, 8, 034015. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034015

Chang, J., Havlík, P., Leclère, D., de Vries, W., Valin, H., Deppermann, A., Hasegawa, T., & Obersteiner, M. (2021). Reconciling regional nitrogen boundaries with global food security. Nature Food, 2, 700–711. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00366-x

Chung, U., Gbegbelegbe, S., Shiferaw, B., Robertson, R., Yun, J. I., Tesfaye, K., Hoogenboom, G., & Sonder, K. (2014). Modeling the effect of a heat wave on maize production in the USA and its implications on food security in the developing world. Weather and Climate Extremes, 5–6, 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2014.07.002

Clapp, J. (2015). ABCD and beyond: From grain merchants to agricultural value chain managers. Canadian Food Studies, 2, 126–135. https://doi.org/10.15353/cfs-rcea.v2i2.84

de Frece, A., & Poole, N. (2008). Constructing Livelihoods in Rural Mexico: Milpa in Mayan Culture. Journal of Peasant Studies, 35, 335–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150802151090

De Groote, H., Kimenju, S. C., Munyua, B., Palmas, S., Kassie, M., Bruce, A. (2020). Spread and impact of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith) in maize production areas of Kenya. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 292, 106804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.106804

Deutsch, C. A., Tewksbury, J. J., Tigchelaar, M., Battisti, D. S., Merrill, S. C., Huey, R. B., & Naylor, R. L. (2018). Increase in crop losses to insect pests in a warming climate. Science, 361, 916–919. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat3466

Drechsler, D. (2021). Grains storage and global food security. FAO, Rome. http://www.amis-outlook.org/resources-list/detail/en/c/1154853/

Ekpa, O., Palacios-Rojas, N., Kruseman, G., Fogliano, V., & Linnemann, A. R. (2019). Sub-Saharan African Maize-Based Foods - Processing Practices, Challenges and Opportunities. Food Reviews International, 35, 609–639. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2019.1588290

Erenstein, O. (2010). The evolving maize sector in Asia: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of New Seeds, 11, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228860903517770

Erenstein, O., Chamberlin, J., & Sonder, K. (2021). Estimating the global number and distribution of maize and wheat farms. Global Food Security, 30, 100558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100558

Erenstein, O., & Kassie, G. T. (2018). Seeding eastern Africa’s maize revolution in the post-structural adjustment era: a review and comparative analysis of the formal maize seed sector. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 21, 39–52. https://doi.org/10.22434/IFAMR2016.0086

Fader, M., Gerten, D., Krause, M., Lucht, W., & Cramer, W. (2013). Spatial decoupling of agricultural production and consumption: Quantifying dependences of countries on food imports due to domestic land and water constraints. Environmental Research Letters, 8, 014046. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/1/014046

Fader, M., Rulli, M. C., Carr, J., Dell’Angelo, J., D’Odorico, P., Gephart, J. A., Kummu, M., Magliocca, N., Porkka, M., Prell, C., Puma, M. J., Ratajczak, Z., Seekell, D. A., Suweis, S., & Tavoni, A. (2016). Past and present biophysical redundancy of countries as a buffer to changes in food supply. Environmental Research Letters, 11, 055008. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/5/055008

Falkowski, T. B., Chankin, A., Diemont, S. A. W., & Pedian, R. W. (2019). More than just corn and calories: A comprehensive assessment of the yield and nutritional content of a traditional Lacandon Maya milpa. Food Security, 11, 389–404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00901-6

Fanzo, J., Haddad, L., Schneider, K. R., Béné, C., Covic, N. M., Guarin, A., Herforth, A. W., Herrero, M., Sumaila, U. R., Aburto, N. J., Amuyunzu-Nyamongo, M., Barquera, S., Battersby, J., Beal, T., Bizzotto Molina, P., Brusset, E., Cafiero, C., Campeau, C., Caron, P., … Rosero Moncayo, J. (2021). Viewpoint: Rigorous monitoring is necessary to guide food system transformation in the countdown to the 2030 global goals. Food Policy, 104, 102163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2021.102163

FAO-ESS. (2021). Crops Statistics - Concepts, Definitions and Classifications. FAO Statistics Division (ESS), Rome. https://www.fao.org/economic/the-statistics-division-ess/methodology/methodology-systems/crops-statistics-concepts-definitions-and-classifications/en/

FAO & CIMMYT. (1997). White Maize: a Traditional Food Grain in Developing Countries. FAO & CIMMYT, Rome. http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2698e/w2698e00.htm

FAO, Ifad, UNICEF, WFP, WHO,. (2021). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021: Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. FAO, Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en

FAOStat. (2021). FAO Stat. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/faostat

Frelat, R., Lopez-Ridaura, S., Giller, K. E., Herrero, M., Douxchamps, S., Djurfeldt, A. A., Erenstein, O., Henderson, B., Kassie, M., Paul, B. K., Rigolot, C., Ritzema, R. S., Rodriguez, D., van Asten, P. J. A., & van Wijk, M. T. (2016). Drivers of household food availability in sub-Saharan Africa based on big data from small farms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 458–463. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518384112

Fuglie, K., Gautam, M., Goyal, A., & Maloney, W. F. (2020). Harvesting Prosperity: Technology and Productivity Growth in Agriculture. Word Bank, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1393-1

García-Lara, S., Chuck-Hernandez, C., & Serna-Saldivar, S. O. (2019). Development and Structure of the Corn Kernel. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (Ed.), Corn (Third Edition). AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. 147–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00006-1

García-Lara, S., & Serna-Saldivar, S. O. (2019). Corn History and Culture. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (Ed.), Corn (Third Edition). AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00001-2

Gaupp, F., Hall, J., Hochrainer-Stigler, S., & Dadson, S. (2020). Changing risks of simultaneous global breadbasket failure. Nature Climate Change, 10, 54–57. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0600-z

Gelli, A., Donovan, J., Margolies, A., Aberman, N., Santacroce, M., Chirwa, E., Henson, S., & Hawkes, C. (2020). Value chains to improve diets: Diagnostics to support intervention design in Malawi. Global Food Security, 25, 100321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.09.006

Grote, U., Fasse, A., Nguyen, T. T., & Erenstein, O. (2021). Food Security and the Dynamics of Wheat and Maize Value Chains in Africa and Asia. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 4, 617009. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.617009

Gulati, A., & Fan, S. (2007). The Dragon and the Elephant: Agricultural and Rural Reforms in China and India. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Gustavsson, J., Cederberg, C., Sonesson, U., van Otterdijk, R., & Meybeck, A. (2011). Global Food Losses and Food Waste: Extent, Causes and Prevention. FAO, Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf

Gwirtz, J. A., & Garcia-Casal, M. N. (2014). Processing maize flour and corn meal food products. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1312, 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12299

Hellin, J., Dixon, J., Higman, S., & Keleman, A. (2011). High-Value Agricultural Products and Poverty Reduction: Smallholder Farmer Access to Maize Markets. Journal of Crop Improvement, 25, 371–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427528.2011.574224

Hellin, J., & Erenstein, O. (2009). Maize-poultry value chains in India: Implications for research and development. Journal of New Seeds, 10, 245–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228860903303932

Hellin, J., Krishna, V. V., Erenstein, O., & Boeber, C. (2015). India’s Poultry Revolution: The Rapid Growth of the Poultry Industry and Implications for its Sustenance and the Global Poultry Trade. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 18, 151–163. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.207008

Helstad, S. (2019). Corn Sweeteners. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (Ed.), Corn (Third Edition). AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. 551–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00020-6

Herrick, C. (2007). The Southern African Famine and Genetically Modified Food Aid: The Ramifications for the United States and European Union’s Trade War. Review of Radical Political Economics, 40, 50–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0486613407311081

Heuzé, V., Tran, G., Edouard, N., & Lebas, F. (2017a). Maize green forage. INRAE, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/358

Heuzé, V., Tran, G., Edouard, N., & Lebas, F. (2017b). Maize silage. INRAE, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/13883

Hirvonen, K., Bai, Y., Headey, D., & Masters, W. A. (2020). Affordability of the EAT-Lancet reference diet: A global analysis. The Lancet Global Health, 8, e59–e66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30447-4

HLPE. (2017). Nutrition and food systems. FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/en/

IFAD. (2021). Rural Development Report 2021: Transforming food systems for rural prosperity. IFAD, Rome. https://www.ifad.org/en/rural-development-report/

IFPRI (2019). Global Spatially-Disaggregated Crop Production Statistics Data for 2010 Version 2.0. In: International Food Policy Research, I. (Ed.). Harvard Dataverse. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/PRFF8V

ISAAA. (2019). Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops in 2019: Biotech Crops Drive Socio-Economic Development and Sustainable Environment in the New Frontier. ISAAA Briefs 55. ISAAA, Ithaca, NY. http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/

Jayne, T. S., & Sanchez, P. A. (2021). Agricultural productivity must improve in sub-Saharan Africa. Science, 372, 1045–1047. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abf5413

Jayne, T. S., Snapp, S., Place, F., & Sitko, N. (2019). Sustainable agricultural intensification in an era of rural transformation in Africa. Global Food Security, 20, 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.01.008

Jones, A. D., & Yosef, S. (2015). The implications of a changing climate on global nutrition security. In D. E. Sahn (Ed.), The fight against hunger and malnutrition (pp. 432–466). Oxford Univeristy Press.

Jones, P. G., & Thornton, P. K. (2003). The potential impacts of climate change on maize production in Africa and Latin America in 2055. Global Environmental Change, 13, 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(02)00090-0

Kaale, L. D., Kimanya, M. E., Macha, I. J., & Mlalila, N. (2021). Aflatoxin contamination and recommendations to improve its control: A review. World Mycotoxin Journal, 14, 27–40. https://doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2020.2599

Kassie, M., Wossen, T., De Groote, H., Tefera, T., Sevgan, S., & Balew, S. (2020). Economic impacts of fall armyworm and its management strategies: Evidence from southern Ethiopia. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 47, 1473–1501. https://doi.org/10.1093/erae/jbz048

Keleman, A., & Hellin, J. (2009). Specialty maize varieties in Mexico: A case study in market-driven agro-biodiversity conservation. Journal of Latin American Geography, 8, 147–174. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25765266

Keleman, A., Hellin, J., & Flores, D. (2013). Diverse Varieties and Diverse Markets: Scale-related Maize “Profitability Crossover” in the Central Mexican Highlands. Human Ecology, 41, 683–705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-013-9566-z

Kennett, D. J., Prufer, K. M., Culleton, B. J., George, R. J., Robinson, M., Trask, W. R., Buckley, G. M., Moes, E., Kate, E. J., Harper, T. K., O’Donnell, L., Ray, E. E., Hill, E. C., Alsgaard, A., Merriman, C., Meredith, C., Edgar, H. J. H., Awe, J. J., & Gutierrez, S. M. (2020). Early isotopic evidence for maize as a staple grain in the Americas. Science Advances, 6, eaba3245. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba3245

Kinnunen, P., Guillaume, J. H. A., Taka, M., D’Odorico, P., Siebert, S., Puma, M. J., Jalava, M., & Kummu, M. (2020). Local food crop production can fulfil demand for less than one-third of the population. Nature Food, 1, 229–237. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-020-0060-7

Krishna, V. V., Lantican, M. A., Prasanna, B. M., Pixley, K., Abdoulaye, T., Menkir, A., Bänziger, M., & Erenstein, O. (2021). Impacts of CGIAR Maize Improvement in sub-Saharan Africa, 1995–2015. CIMMYT, Mexico, CDMX. https://hdl.handle.net/10883/21292

Kumar, D., & Singh, V. (2019). Bioethanol Production From Corn. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (Ed.), Corn (Third Edition). AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. 615–631. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00022-X

Langyintuo, A. S., Mwangi, W., Diallo, A. O., MacRobert, J., Dixon, J., & Bänziger, M. (2010). Challenges of the maize seed industry in eastern and southern Africa: A compelling case for private-public intervention to promote growth. Food Policy, 35, 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.01.005

Li, X.-J., Wu, M.-F., Ma, J., Gao, B.-Y., Wu, Q.-L., Chen, A.-D., Liu, J., Jiang, Y.-Y., Zhai, B.-P., Early, R., Chapman, J. W., & Hu, G. (2020). Prediction of migratory routes of the invasive fall armyworm in eastern China using a trajectory analytical approach. Pest Management Science, 76, 454–463. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.5530

Lowder, S. K., Sánchez, M. V., & Bertini, R. (2021). Which farms feed the world and has farmland become more concentrated? World Development, 142, 105455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105455

Loy, D. D., & Lundy, E. L. (2019). Nutritional Properties and Feeding Value of Corn and Its Coproducts. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (Ed.), Corn (Third Edition). AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. 633–659. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00023-1

Marenya, P. P., Erenstein, O., Prasanna, B., Makumbi, D., Jumbo, M., & Beyene, Y. (2018). Maize lethal necrosis disease: Evaluating agronomic and genetic control strategies for Ethiopia and Kenya. Agricultural Systems, 162, 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2018.01.016

Martinez, E. L., & Fernandez, F. J. B. (2019). Economics of Production, Marketing and Utilization. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (Ed.), Corn (Third Edition). AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. 87–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00004-8

Mekonnen, M. M., & Gerbens-Leenes, W. (2020). The Water Footprint of Global Food Production. Water, 12, 2696. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102696

Miller, J. D. (2008). Mycotoxins in small grains and maize: Old problems, new challenges. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A, 25, 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030701744520

Morris, M., Mekuria, M., & Gerpacio, R. (2003). Impacts of CIMMYT maize breeding research. In: Evenson, R.E., Gollin, D. (Eds.), Crop Variety Improvement and its Effect on Productivity: The Impact of International Agricultural Research. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, pp. 135–158. https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851995496.0135

Morris, M. L. (Ed). (1998). Maize Seed Industries in Developing Countries. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, Colorado. http://www.rienner.com/title/Maize_Seed_Industries_in_Developing_Countries

Mottaleb, K. A., Kruseman, G., & Erenstein, O. (2018). Determinants of maize cultivation in a land-scarce rice-based economy: The case of Bangladesh. Journal of Crop Improvement, 32, 453–476. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427528.2018.1446375

Mottet, A., de Haan, C., Falcucci, A., Tempio, G., Opio, C., & Gerber, P. (2017). Livestock: On our plates or eating at our table? A new analysis of the feed/food debate. Global Food Security, 14, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.01.001

Munkvold, G. P., Arias, S., Taschl, I., & Gruber-Dorninger, C. (2019). Mycotoxins in Corn: Occurrence, Impacts, and Management. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (Ed.), Corn (Third Edition). AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. 235–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00009-7

Muzhinji, N., & Ntuli, V. (2021). Genetically modified organisms and food security in Southern Africa: Conundrum and discourse. GM Crops & Food, 12, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2020.1794489

Ngoma, H., Pelletier, J., Mulenga, B. P., & Subakanya, M. (2021). Climate-smart agriculture, cropland expansion and deforestation in Zambia: Linkages, processes and drivers. Land Use Policy, 107, 105482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105482

Nuss, E. T., & Tanumihardjo, S. A. (2010). Maize: A paramount staple crop in the context of global nutrition. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 9, 417–436. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00117.x

Nuss, E. T., & Tanumihardjo, S. A. (2011). Quality Protein Maize for Africa: Closing the Protein Inadequacy Gap in Vulnerable Populations. Advances in Nutrition: An International Review Journal, 2, 217–224. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.110.000182

Paulsen, M. R., Singh, M., & Singh, V. (2019). Measurement and Maintenance of Corn Quality. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (Ed.), Corn (Third Edition). AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. 165–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00007-3

Pellegrino, E., Bedini, S., Nuti, M., & Ercoli, L. (2018). Impact of genetically engineered maize on agronomic, environmental and toxicological traits: A meta-analysis of 21 years of field data. Scientific Reports, 8, 3113. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-21284-2

Pelletier, J., Ngoma, H., Mason, N. M., & Barrett, C. B. (2020). Does smallholder maize intensification reduce deforestation? Evidence from Zambia. Global Environmental Change, 63, 102127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102127

Peña-Rosas, J. P., Garcia-Casal, M. N., Pachón, H., McLean, M. S., & Arabi, M. (2014). Technical considerations for maize flour and corn meal fortification in public health: Consultation rationale and summary. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1312, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12434

Poole, N., Donovan, J., & Erenstein, O. (2021). Agri-nutrition research: Revisiting the contribution of maize and wheat to human nutrition and health. Food Policy, 100, 101976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101976

Popkin, B. M. (1999). Urbanization, Lifestyle Changes and the Nutrition Transition. World Development, 27, 1905–1916. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00094-7

Prasanna, B. M., Cairns, J. E., Zaidi, P. H., Beyene, Y., Makumbi, D., Gowda, M., Magorokosho, C., Zaman-Allah, M., Olsen, M., Das, A., Worku, M., Gethi, J., Vivek, B. S., Nair, S. K., Rashid, Z., Vinayan, M. T., Issa, A. B., San Vicente, F., Dhliwayo, T., & Zhang, X. (2021). Beat the stress: Breeding for climate resilience in maize for the tropical rainfed environments. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00122-021-03773-7

Prasanna, B. M., Huesing, J. E., Eddy, R., & Peschke, V. M. (Eds.). (2018). Fall Armyworm in Africa: A Guide for Integrated Pest Management. CIMMYT, Mexico, CDMX. https://repository.cimmyt.org/handle/10883/19204

Prasanna, B. M., Palacios-Rojas, N., Hossain, F., Muthusamy, V., Menkir, A., Dhliwayo, T., Ndhlela, T., San Vicente, F., Nair, S. K., Vivek, B. S., Zhang, X., Olsen, M., & Fan, X. (2020). Molecular Breeding for Nutritionally Enriched Maize: Status and Prospects. Frontiers in Genetics. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.01392

Prasanna, B. M., Vasal, S. K., Kassahun, B., & Singh, N. N. (2001). Quality protein maize. Current Science, 81, 1308–1319. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24105845

Qian, J., Ito, S., Zhao, Z., Mu, Y., & Hou, L. (2015). Impact of agricultural subsidy policies on Grain Prices in China. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, 60, 273–279.

Ranum, P., Peña-Rosas, J. P., & Garcia-Casal, M. N. (2014). Global maize production, utilization, and consumption. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1312, 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12396

Scoones, I., & Thompson, J. (2011). The Politics of Seed in Africa’s Green Revolution: Alternative Narratives and Competing Pathways. IDS Bulletin, 42, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2011.00232.x

Scott, P., Pratt, R. C., Hoffman, N., & Montgomery, R. (2019). Specialty Corns. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (Ed.), Corn (Third Edition). AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00010-3

Serna-Saldivar, S. O., & Perez Carrillo, E. (2019). Food Uses of Whole Corn and Dry-Milled Fractions. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (Ed.), Corn (Third Edition). AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. 435–467. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00016-4

Shew, A. M., Tack, J. B., Nalley, L. L., Chaminuka, P., & Maali, S. (2021). Yield gains larger in GM maize for human consumption than livestock feed in South Africa. Nature Food, 2, 104–109. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00231-x

Shiferaw, B., Prasanna, B., Hellin, J., & Banziger, M. (2011). Crops that feed the world 6. Past successes and future challenges to the role played by maize in global food security. Food Security, 3, 307–327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-011-0140-5

Smale, M., Byerlee, D., & Jayne, T. (2013). Maize Revolutions in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Otsuka, K., & Larson, F.D. (Eds.), An African Green Revolution: Finding Ways to Boost Productivity on Small Farms. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 165–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5760-8_8

Tadesse, M., Shiferaw, B., & Erenstein, O. (2015). Weather index insurance for managing drought risk in smallholder agriculture: Lessons and policy implications for sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural and Food Economics, 3, 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-015-0044-3

Tanumihardjo, S. A., McCulley, L., Roh, R., Lopez-Ridaura, S., Palacios-Rojas, N., & Gunaratna, N. S. (2020). Maize agro-food systems to ensure food and nutrition security in reference to the Sustainable Development Goals. Global Food Security, 25, 100327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.100327

Tesfaye, K., Gbegbelegbe, S., Cairns, J. E., Shiferaw, B., Prasanna, B. M., Sonder, K., Boote, K., Makumbi, D., & Robertson, R. (2015). Maize systems under climate change in sub-Saharan Africa: Potential impacts on production and food security. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 7, 247–271. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-01-2014-0005

Tittonell, P., Gérard, B., & Erenstein, O. (2015). Tradeoffs around crop residue biomass in smallholder crop-livestock systems – What’s next? Agricultural Systems, 134, 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2015.02.003

Tokarick, S. (2005). Who Bears the Cost of Agricultural Support in OECD Countries? The World Economy, 28, 573–593. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9701.2005.00692.x

Townsend, R. (2015). Ending poverty and hunger by 2030: An agenda for the global food system. The World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/700061468334490682/Ending-poverty-and-hunger-by-2030-an-agenda-for-the-global-food-system

UN-DESA. (2019). World population prospects 2019. UN Department for Economic and Social Affairs, New York. https://population.un.org/wpp/

Valbuena, D., Erenstein, O., Homann-Kee Tui, S., Abdoulaye, T., Claessens, L., Duncan, A. J., Gerard, B., Rufino, M. C., Teufel, N., van Rooyen, A., & van Wijk, M. T. (2012). Conservation Agriculture in mixed crop-livestock systems: Scoping crop residue trade-offs in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Field Crops Research, 132, 175–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2012.02.022

Valbuena, D., Tui, S.H.-K., Erenstein, O., Teufel, N., Duncan, A., Abdoulaye, T., Swain, B., Mekonnen, K., Germaine, I., & Gérard, B. (2015). Identifying determinants, pressures and trade-offs of crop residue use in mixed smallholder farms in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Agricultural Systems, 134, 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2014.05.013

van Ittersum, M. K., van Bussel, L. G. J., Wolf, J., Grassini, P., van Wart, J., Guilpart, N., Claessens, L., de Groot, H., Wiebe, K., Mason-D’Croz, D., Yang, H., Boogaard, H., van Oort, P. A. J., van Loon, M. P., Saito, K., Adimo, O., Adjei-Nsiah, S., Agali, A., Bala, A., … Cassman, K. G. (2016). Can sub-Saharan Africa feed itself? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 14964–14969. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1610359113

Wallington, T. J., Anderson, J. E., Mueller, S. A., Kolinski Morris, E., Winkler, S. L., Ginder, J. M., & Nielsen, O. J. (2012). Corn Ethanol Production, Food Exports, and Indirect Land Use Change. Environmental Science & Technology, 46, 6379–6384. https://doi.org/10.1021/es300233m

Willett, W., Rockström, J., Loken, B., Springmann, M., Lang, T., Vermeulen, S., Garnett, T., Tilman, D., DeClerck, F., Wood, A., Jonell, M., Clark, M., Gordon, L. J., Fanzo, J., Hawkes, C., Zurayk, R., Rivera, J. A., De Vries, W., Majele Sibanda, L., … Murray, C. J. L. (2019). Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. The Lancet, 393, 447–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4

WorldBank. (2021). World Bank Commodities Price Data (The Pink Sheet). World Bank, Washington, DC, USA. http://www.worldbank.org/commodities

Wright, B. D. (2011). The economics of grain price volatility. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 33, 32–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/aepp/ppq033

Wright, B. D. (2012). International Grain Reserves And Other Instruments to Address Volatility in Grain Markets. The World Bank Research Observer, 27, 222–260. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkr016

Wu, F., & Guclu, H. (2012). Aflatoxin Regulations in a Network of Global Maize Trade. PLoS ONE, 7, e45151. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0045151

Wu, F., & Guclu, H. (2013). Global Maize Trade and Food Security: Implications from a Social Network Model. Risk Analysis, 33, 2168–2178. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.12064

Wu, F., Stacy, S. L., & Kensler, T. W. (2013). Global Risk Assessment of Aflatoxins in Maize and Peanuts: Are Regulatory Standards Adequately Protective? Toxicological Sciences, 135, 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kft132

Yi, F., Sun, D., & Zhou, Y. (2015). Grain subsidy, liquidity constraints and food security–Impact of the grain subsidy program on the grain-sown areas in China. Food Policy, 50, 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2014.10.009.