Environmental, cognitive, and metacognitive influences on text revision: Assessing the evidence

Springer Science and Business Media LLC - Tập 8 Số 3 - Trang 239-297 - 1996
Earl C. Butterfield1, Douglas J. Hacker2, Luann R. Albertson1
1College of Education, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
2University of Memphis, Memphis, USA

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Ackerman, B. P. (1984). Storage and processing constraints on integrating story information in children and adults.J. Exp. Child Psychol. 38: 64?92.

Ackerman, B. P. (1988). Reason inferences in the story comprehension of children and adults.Child Devel. 59: 1426?1442.

Adams, M. J., and Collins, A. (1979). A schema-theoretic view of reading. In Freedle, R. O. (ed.),Discourse Processing: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, Ablex, Norwood, NJ, pp. 486?502.

Andre, T. (1987). Processes in reading comprehension and the teaching of comprehension. In Glover, J. A., and Ronning, R. R. (eds.),Historical Foundations of Educational Psychology, Plenum, New York, pp. 259?296.

August, D. L., Flavell, J. H., and Clift, R. (1984). Comparison of comprehension monitoring of skilled and less skilled readers.Reading Res. Quart. 20: 39?53.

Baker, L. (1984). Children's effective use of multiple standards for evaluating their comprehension.J. Educ. Psychol. 76: 588?597.

Baker, L. (1985). How do we know when we don't understand? Standards for evaluating text comprehension. In Forrest-Pressley, D. L., MacKinnon, G. E., and Waller, T. G. (eds.),Metacognition, Cognition, and Human Performance, Academic, New York, pp. 155?205.

Bambrough, R. (ed.) (1963).The Philosophy of Aristotle, Mentor, New York.

Beal, C. R. (1990). Development of knowledge about the role of inference in text comprehension.Child Devel. 61: 1011?1023.

Beal, C. R. (1996). The role of comprehension monitoring in children's revision.Educ. Psychol. Rev. 8: 219?238.

Beal, C., and Belgrad, S. (1990). The development of message evaluation skills in young children.Child Devel. 61: 705?712.

Beal, C. R., Bonitatibus, G. J., and Garrod, A. C. (1990). Fostering children's revision skills through training in comprehension monitoring.J. Educ. Psychol. 82: 275?280.

Beason, L. (1993). Feedback and revision in writing across the curriculum classes.Res. Teach. Engl. 27: 395?422.

Beard, R. (1991). Learning to read like a writer.Educ. Rev. 43: 17?24.

Belmont, J. M., and Butterfield, E. C. (1977). The instructional approach to developmental cognitive research. In Kail, R., and Hagen, J. (eds.),Perspectives on the Development of Memory and Cognition, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 437?481.

Benton, S. L., and Blohm, P. J. (1986). Effect of question type and position on measures of conceptual elaboration in writing.Res. Teach. Engl. 20: 98?108.

Breiter, C., Burtis, P. J., and Scardamalia, M. (1988). Cognitive operations in constructing main points in written composition.J. Mem. Lang. 27: 261?278.

Bereiter, C., and Scardamalia, M. (1982). From conversation to composition: The role of instruction in a developmental process. In Glaser, R. (ed.),Advances in Instructional Psychology (Vol. 2), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 1?64.

Bereiter, C., and Scardamalia, M. (1983), Levels of inquiry in writing research. In Mosenthal, P., Tamor, L., and Walmsley, S. A. (eds.),Research on Writing: Principles and Methods, Longman, New York, pp. 3?25.

Berkenkotter (1981). Understanding a writer's awareness of audience.Coll. Comp. Commun. 32: 388?399.

Berninger, V. W., Cartwright, A. C., Yates, C. M., Swanson, H. L., and Abbott, R. (1994). Developmental skills related to writing and reading acquisition in the intermediate grades: Shared and unique functional systems.Reading Writing 6: 161?196.

Berninger, V. W., and Swanson, H. L. (1994). Modifying Hayes and Flower's model of skilled writing to explain beginning and developing writing. In Carlson, J. S. (series ed.) and Butterfield, E. C. (vol. ed.),Advances in Cognition and Educational Practice: Vol. 2. Children's Writing: Toward a Process Theory of the Development of Skilled Writing, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 57?82.

Berninger, V. W., Yates, C., Cartwright, A., Rutberg, J., Remy, E., and Abbott, R. (1992). Lower-level developmental skills in beginning writing.Reading Writing 4: 257?280.

Berninger, V. W., Whitaker, D., Feng, Y., Swanson, H. L., and Abbott, R. (in press). Assessment of planning, translating, and revising in junior high writers.J. School Psychol.

Black, J. B., and Bern, H. (1981). Causal coherence and memory for events in narratives.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 20: 267?275.

Bonk, C. J., and Reynolds, T. H. (1992). Early adolescent composing within a generative-evaluative computerized prompting framework.Comput. Hum. Behav. 8: 39?62.

Bos, C. S. (1991). Reading-writing connections: Using literature as a zone of proximal development for writing.Learn. Disab. Res. Pract. 6: 251?256.

Booth, W. C. (1970).Now Don't Try to Reason with Me: Essays and Ironies for a Credulous Age, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Bourdin, B., and Fayol, M. (1993). Comparing Speaking Span and Writing Span: A Working Memory Approach. Paper presented at the European Association for Research in Learning and Instruction, Aix-en-Provence, France.

Bourdin, B., and Fayol, M. (1994). Is written language production more difficult than oral language production?Int. J. Psychol. 29: 591?620.

Bracewell, R. J. (1983). Investigating the control of writing skills. In Mosenthal, P., Tamor, L., and Walmsley, S. A. (eds.),Research on Writing: Principles and Methods, Longman, New York, pp. 177?205.

Bransford, J. D., Barclay, J. B., and Franks, J. J. (1972). Sentence memory: A constructive versus interpretive approach.Cognit. Psychol. 3: 193?209.

Bransford, J. D., and Franks, J. J. (1971). The abstraction of linguistic ideas.Cognit. Psychol. 2: 331?350.

Breetvelt, I., van den Bergh, H., and Rijlaarsdam, G. (1994). Relations between writing processes and text quality: When and how?Cognit. Instruct. 12: 103?123.

Brown, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In Spiro, R. J., Bruce, B. C., and Brewer, W. F. (eds.),Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 453?481.

Buehler, M. F. (1977). Controlled flexibility in technical editing: The levels-of-edit concept at JPL.Tech. Commun. 1?4.

Buesgens, C. (1995). The Role of Questions in Detection of Semantic Errors. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Washington.

Burleson, B. R., and Rowan, K. E. (1985). Are social-cognitive ability and narrative skill related?Written Commun. 2: 25?44.

Butterfield, E. C. (1994). Diverse data about writing processes and their theoretical implications. In Carlson, J. S. (series ed.) and Butterfield, E. C. (vol. ed.),Advances in Cognition and Educational Practice, Vol. 2: Children's Writing: Toward a Process Theory of the Development of Skilled Writing, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 199?208.

Butterfield, E. C., Albertson, L. R., and Johnston, J. (1995). On making cognitive theory more general and developmentally pertinent. In Weinert, F., and Schneider, W. (eds.),Memory Performance and Competence: Issues in Growth and Development, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 181?205.

Butterfield, E. C., Locke, D. R., and Albertson, L. R. (1995). WriteScope (Version 1.0) [On-line theory-based process analysis of writing]. Department of Education, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.

Butterfield, E. C., and Ferretti, R. P. (1987). Toward a theoretical integration of hypotheses about intellectual differences among children. In Borkowski, J. G., and Day, J. D. (eds.),Cognition in Special Children, Ablex, Norwood, NJ, pp. 195?234.

Butterfield, E. C., Hacker, D. J., and Plumb, C. (1994). Topic knowledge, linguistic knowledge, and revision processes as determinants of text revision. In Carlson, J. S. (series ed.) and Butterfield, E. C. (vol. ed.),Advances in Cognition and Educational Practice, Vol. 2: Children's Writing: Toward a Process Theory of the Development of Skilled Writing, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 83?143.

Butterfield, E. C., Siladi, D., and Belmont, J. M. (1980). Validating theories of intelligence. In Reese, H., and Lipsitt, L. P. (eds.),Advances in Child Development and Child Behavior (Vol. 15), Academic Press, New York, pp. 96?162.

Carpenter, P. A., and Just, M. A. (1989). The role of working memory in language comprehension. In Klahr, D., and Kotovsky, K. (eds.),Complex Information Processing: The Impact of Herbert A. Simon, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 31?68.

Cherryholmes, C. (1993). Reading research.J. Curr. Stud. 25: 1?32.

Conant, R. C., and Ashby, W. R. (1970). Every good regulator of a system must be a model of that system.Int. J. Syst. Sci. 1: 89?97.

Cox, B. E., Shanahan, T., and Sulzby, E. (1990). Good and poor elementary readers' use of cohesion in writing.Reading Res. Quart. 25: 47?65.

Cox, B. E., Shanahan, T., and Tinzmann, M. (1991). Children's knowledge of organization, cohesion, and voice in written exposition.Res. Teach. Eng. 25: 179?218.

Daiute, C., and Kruidenier, J. (1984). Strategies for Reading One's Own Writing. Unpublished manuscript, Harvard University.

Daiute, C., and Kruidenier, J. (1985). A self-questioning strategy to increase young writers' revising processes.Appl. Psycholing. 6: 307?318.

Daneman, M., and Carpenter, P. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 19: 450?466.

Daneman, M., and Green, L. (1986). Individual differences in comprehending and producing words in context.J. Mem. Lang. 25: 1?18.

Daneman, M., and Stainton, M. (1993). The generation effect in reading and proofreading: Is it easier or harder to detect errors in one's own writing?Reading Writing 5: 297?313.

Eagleton, T. (1983).Literary Theory: An Introduction, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.

Ede, L. (1984). Audience: An introduction to research.Coll. Comp. Commun. 35: 140?154.

Englert, C. S., Raphael, T. M., Anderson, L. M., and Anthony, H. M. (1991). Making strategies and self-talk visible: Writing instruction in regular and special education classrooms.Am. Educ. Res. J. 28: 337?372.

Englert, C. S., Raphael, T. E., Fear, K. L., and Anderson, L. M. (1988). Students' metacognitive knowledge about how to write informational texts.Learn. Disab. Quart. 11: 18?46.

Faigley, L. (1986). Competing theories of process: A critique and proposal.Coll. Engl. 48: 527?542.

Faigley, L., and Witte, S. (1981). Analyzing revision.Coll. Comp. Commun. 32: 400?414.

Farkas, D. K. (1986).How to Teach Technical Editing, San Diego, CA. Society for Technical Communication, San Diego, CA.

Fitzgerald, J. (1987). Research on revision in writing.Rev. Educ. Res. 57: 481?506.

Fitzgerald, J. (1990). Reading and writing as ?mind meeting.? In Shanahan, T. (ed.),Reading and Writing Together: New Perspectives for the Classroom, Christopher-Gordon, Norwood, MA, pp. 81?97.

Fitzgerald, J. (1992). Variant views about good thinking during composing: Focus on revision. In Pressley, M., Harris, K. R., and Guthrie, J. T. (eds.),Promoting Academic Competence and Literacy in School, Academic, New York, pp. 337?358.

Fitzgerald, J., and Markham, L. R. (1987). Teaching children about revision in writing.Cognit. Instr. 4: 3?24.

Fitzgerald, J., and Stamm, C. (1990). Effects of group conferences on first graders' revision in writing.Written Commun. 7: 96?135.

Fletcher, C. R., Hummel, J. E., and Marsolek, C. J. (1990). Causality and allocation of attention during comprehension.J. Exp. Psychol.: Learn., Mem., Cognit. 16: 233?240.

Flower, L. (1994).The Construction of Negotiated Meaning: A Social Cognitive Theory of Writing, Wayne State University Press, Detroit.

Flower, L., and Hayes, J. R. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. A cognitive process theory of writing.Coll. Comp. Commun. 32: 365?387.

Flower, L., Hayes, J. R. Carey, L., Schriver, K., and Stratman, J. (1986). Detection, diagnosis, and the strategies of revision.Coll. Comp. Commun. 37: 16?55.

Forrest-Pressley, D. L., MacKinnon, G. E., and Waller, T. G. (eds.) (1985).Metacognition, Cognition, and Human Performance, Vol. 2: Instructional Practices, Academic Press, New York.

Francis, M., and McCutchen, D. (1994). Strategy Differences in Revising Between Skilled and Less Skilled Writers. Paper presented at American Educational Research Association, New Orleans.

Gadamer, H. G. (1993).Truth and Method (2nd Ed.), Continuum, New York.

Gage, J. T. (1986). The teaching of writing: Theory and practice. In Petrosky, A. R., and Bartholomae, D. (eds.),The Teaching of Writing: Eighty-Fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 8?29.

Garner, R. (1990). Children's use of strategies in reading. In Bjorklund, D. F. (ed.),Children's Strategies?Contemporary Views of Cognitive Development, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 245?268.

Garner, R., and Anderson, J. (1982). Monitoring-of-understanding research: Inquiry directions, methodological dilemmas.J. Exp. Educ. 50: 70?76.

Garnham, A. (1987).Mental Models as Representations of Discourse and Text, Ellis Horwood, Chichester.

Garnham, A., and Oakhill, J. (1992). Discourse processing and text representation from a ?mental modes? perspective.Lang. Cognit. Proc. 7: 193?204.

Gordon, C. J. (1990). Changes in readers' and writers' metacognitive knowledge: Some observations.Reading Res. Instr. 30: 1?14.

Gordon, C. J., and Braun, C. (1986). Mental processes in reading and writing: A critical look at self-reports as supportive data.J. Educ. Res. 79: 292?301.

Graesser, A. C., and Kreuz, R. J. (1993). A theory of inference generation during text comprehension.Disc. Proc. 16: 145?160.

Graesser, A. C., Singer, M., and Trabasso, T. (in press). Constructing inferences during narrative text comprehension.Psychol. Rev.

Graham, S., and MacArthur, C. (1988). Improving learning disabled students' skills at revising essays produced on a word processor: Self-instructional strategy training.J. Spec. Educ. 22: 133?152.

Gredja, G. F., and Hanafin, M. J. (1991). The influence of word processing on the revisions of fifth graders.Comput. Schools 8: 89?102.

Gredja, G. F., and Hanafin, M. J. (1992). Effects of word processing on sixth graders' holistic writing and revision.J. Educ. Res. 85: 144?149.

Guttentag, R. E. (1995). Mental effort and motivation: Influences on children's memory strategy use. In Weinert, F., and Schneider, W. (eds.),Memory Performance and Competencies: Issues in Growth and Development, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.

Hacker, D. J. (1994). Comprehension monitoring as a writing process. In Carlson, J. S. (series ed.) and Butterfield, E. C. (vol. ed.),Advances in Cognition and Educational Practice, Vol. 2: Children's Writing: Toward a Process Theory of the Development of Skilled Writing, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 143?173.

Hacker, D. J. (1995). Comprehension Monitoring Across Early-to-Middle Adolescence. Unpublished manuscript, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN.

Hacker, D. J., Plumb, C., Butterfield, E. C., Quathamer, D., and Heineken, E. (1994). Text revision: Detection and correction of errors.J. Educ. Psychol. 86: 1?15.

Harris, P. L., Kruithof, A., Terwogt, M. M., and Visser, T. (1981). Children's detection and awareness of textual anomaly.J. Exp. Child Psychol. 31: 212?230.

Haugen, D. (1990). Coming to terms with editing.Res. Teach. Engl. 24: 322?333.

Hayes, J. R., and Flower, L. S. (1980). Identifying the organization of writing processes. In Gregg, L. W., and Steinberg, E. R. (eds.),Cognitive Processes in Writing, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 3?30.

Hayes, J. R., and Flower, L. S. (1983). Uncovering cognitive processes in writing: An introduction to protocol analysis. In Mosenthal, P., Tamor, L., and Walmsley, S. A. (eds.),Research on Writing: Principles and Methods. Longman, New York, pp. 207?220.

Hayes, J. R., and Flower, L. S. (1986). Writing research and the writer.Am. Psychol. 1106?1113.

Hayes, J. R., Flower, L. S., Schriver, K. A., Stratman, J. F., and Carey, L. (1987). Cognitive processes in revision. In Rosenberg, S. (ed.),Advances in Psycholinguistics: Reading, Writing, and Language Processing (Vol. 2), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, pp. 176?240.

Helmbold, W. C. (1952).Gorgias, Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis.

Hull, G. (1987). The editing process in writing: A performance study of more skilled and less skilled college writers.Res. Teach. Engl. 21: 9?29.

Johnson, S., Linton, P., and Madigan, R. (1994). The role of internal standards in assessment of written discourse.Disc. Proc. 18: 231?245.

Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983).Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference, and Consciousness, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

Just, M. A., and Carpenter, P. A. (1992). A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory.Psychol. Rev. 99: 122?149.

Kellogg, R. T. (1987). Effects of topic knowledge on the allocation of processing time and cognitive effort to writing processes.Mem. Cognit. 15: 256?266.

Kellogg, R. T. (1988). Attentional overload and writing performance: Effects of rough draft and outline strategies.J. Exp. Psychol.: Learn. Mem. Cognit. 14: 355?365.

Kellogg, R. T. (1990).A Knowledge-Usage Theory of Writing. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society, New Orleans, November.

Kintsch, W. (1982). Memory for text. In Flammer, A., and Kintsch, W. (eds.),Discourse Processing, North-Holland, New York, pp. 186?204.

Kintsch, W. (1988). The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A construction?integration model.Psychol. Rev. 95: 163?182.

Kroll, B. M. (1978). Cognitive egocentrism and the problem of audience awareness in written discourse.Res. Teach. Eng. 12: 269?281.

Lachman, R., Lachman, J. L., and Butterfield, E. C. (1979).Cognitive Psychology and Information Processing: An Introduction, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.

Langer, J. A. (1986).Children Reading and Writing: Structures and Strategies, Ablex, Norwood, NJ.

Levy, B. A., Newell, S., Snyder, J., and Timmins, K. (1986). Processing changes across reading encounters.J. Exp. Psychol.: Learn., Mem., Cognit. 12: 467?478.

Lutz, J. A. (1987). A study of professional and experienced writers revising and editing at the computer and with pen and paper.Res. Teach. Eng. 21: 398?421.

MacArthur, C. A., Graham, S., and Schwartz, S. (1991). Knowledge of revision and revising behavior among students with learning disabilities.Learn. Disab. Quart. 14: 61?73.

MacArthur, C. A., Harris, K. R., and Graham. S. (1994). Helping students with learning disabilities plan compositions: Instruction in cognitive and metacognitive strategies. In Carlson, J. S. (series ed.) and Butterfield, E. C. (vol. ed.),Advances in Cognition and Educational Practice, Vol. 2: Children's Writing: Toward a Process Theory of the Development of Skilled Writing, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 173?199.

MacArthur, C. A., Schwartz, S. S., and Graham, S. (1991). Effects of a reciprocal peer revision strategy in special education classrooms.Learning Disabil. Res. Pract. 6: 201?210.

Markel, M. H. (1988).Technical Writing: Situations and Strategies, St. Martin's Press, New York.

Markman, E. M. (1977). Realizing that you don't understand: A preliminary investigation.Child Devel. 48: 986?992.

Markman, E. M. (1979). Realizing that you don't understand: Elementary school children's awareness.Child Devel. 50: 643?655.

Markman, E. M. (1985). Comprehension monitoring: Developmental and educational issues. In Chipman, S. F., Segal, J. W., and Glaser, R. (eds.),Thinking and Learning Skills, Vol. 2: Research and Open Questions, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 275?291.

Markman, E. M., and Gorin, L. (1981). Children's ability to adjust their standards for evaluating comprehension.J. Educ. Psychol. 73: 320?325.

Martin, S. H. (1988). A description of cognitive processes during reading and writing.Reading Psychol. 9: 1?15.

Matsuhashi, A. (1987). Revising the plan and altering the text. In Matsuhashi, A. (ed.),Writing in Real Time: Modeling Production Processes, Ablex, Norwood, NJ, pp. 197?223.

McCutchen, D. (1994). The magical number three, plus or minus two: Working memory in writing. In Carlson, J. S. (series ed.) and Butterfield, E. C. (vol. ed),Advances in Cognition and Educational Practice, Vol. 2: Children's Writing: Toward a Process Theory of the Development of Skilled Writing, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT.

McCutchen, D. (1996). A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition.Educ. Psychol. Rev. 8: 299?324.

McCutchen, D., Covill, A., Hoyne, S. H., and Mildes, K. (1994). Individual differences in writing: Implications of translating fluency.J. Educ. Psychol. 86: 256?266.

McCutchen, D., Francis, M., and Kerr, S. (1994). Revising and Editing: Effects of Knowledge and Strategy Use. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans.

McCutchen, D., Hull, G. A., and Smith, W. L. (1987). Editing strategies and error correction in basic writing.Written Commun. 4: 139?154.

Monahan, B. D. (1984). Revision strategies of basic and competent writers as they write for different audiences.Res. Teach. Eng. 18: 288?304.

Murray, D. M. (1978). Internal revision: A process of discovery. In Cooper, C. R., and Odell, L. (eds.),Research on Composing, National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, IL, pp. 85?103.

Nelson, T. O., and Narens, L. (1990). Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. In Bower, G. H. (ed.),The Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 26), Academic, New York, pp. 125?141.

Nystrand, M. (1986).The Structure of Written Communication: Studies in Reciprocity Between Writers and Readers, Academic Press, New York.

Nystrand, M. (1989). A social-interactive model of writing.Written Commun. 6: 66?85.

Oakhill, J. (1993). Children's difficulties in reading comprehension.Educ. Psychol. Rev. 5: 223?237.

Oliu, W. E., Brusaw, C. T., and Alred, G. J. (1980).Writing that Works: How to Write Effectively on the Job, St. Martin's Press, New York.

Olson, V. L. B. (1990). The revising process of sixth-grade writers with and without peer feedback.J. Educ. Res. 84: 22?29.

Otero, J., and Kintsch, W. (1992). Failures to detect contradictions in a text: What readers believe versus what they read.Psychol. Sci. 3: 229?235.

Owston, R. D., Murphy, S., and Wideman, H. H. (1992). The effects of word processing on students' writing quality and revision strategies.Res. Teach. Eng. 26: 249?275.

Palincsar, A. A., and Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities.Cognit. Instr. 1: 117?175.

Perfetti, C. A., and McCutchen, D. (1987). Schooled language competence: Linguistic abilities in reading and writing. In Rosenberg, S. (ed.),Advances in Applied Psycholinguistics, Vol. 2, Reading, Writing, and Language Learning, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 105?141.

Perl, S. (1979). The composing processes of unskilled college writers.Res. Teach. Eng. 13: 317?336.

Petros, T. V., Norgaard, L., Olson, K., and Tabor, L. (1989). Effects of text genre and verbal ability on adult age differences in sensitivity to text structure.Psychol. Aging 4: 247?250.

Pfister, F. R., and Petrik, J. F. (1980). A heuristic model for creating a writer's audience.Coll. Comp. Commun. 31: 213?220.

Pianko, S. (1977). The composing acts of college freshman writers: A description.Diss. Abstr. 38(7): 3983A.

Piolat, A., and Roussey, J. Y. (1991). Narrative and descriptive text revising strategies and procedures.Eur. J. Psychol. Educ. 6: 155?163.

Plumb, C., Butterfield, E. C., Hacker, D. J., and Dunlosky, J. (1994). Error correction in text: Testing the processing-deficit and knowledge-deficit hypotheses.Reading Writing 6: 347?360.

Pressley, M., El-Dinary, P. B., and Brown, R. (1992). Skilled and not-so-skilled reading: Good information processing and not-so-good information processing. In Pressley, M., Harris, K. R., and Guthrie, J. T. (eds.),Promoting Academic Competence and Literacy in School, Academic, New York, pp. 91?127.

Pressley, M., Forrest-Pressley, D. L., Elliot-Faust, D., and Miller, G. (1985). Children's use of cognitive strategies, how to teach strategies, and what to do if they can't be taught. In Pressley, M., and Brainerd, C. J. (eds.),Cognitive Learning and Memory in Children: Progress in Cognitive Development Research, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 1?47.

Raaijmakers, J. G. W., and Shiffrin, R. M. (1992). Models for recall and recognition. In Rosenzweig, M. R. and Porter, L. W. (eds.),Annual Review of Psychology (Vol. 43), Annual Reviews, Palo Alto, CA.

Ransdell, S. E., and Levy, C. M. (1994). Writing as process and product: The impact of tool, genre, audience knowledge, and writer expertise.Comp. Hum. Behav. 10: 511?527.

Raphael, T. E., Englert, C. S., and Kirschner, B. W. (1989). Students' metacognitive knowledge about writing.Res. Teach. Eng. 23: 343?379.

Redd-Boyd, T. M., and Slater, W. H. (1989). The effects of audience specification on under-graduates' attitudes, strategies, and writing.Res. Teach. Eng. 23: 77?108.

Reynolds, C. J., Hill, D. S., Swassing, R. H., and Ward, M. E. (1988). The effects of revision strategy instruction on the writing performance of students with learning disabilities.J. Learn. Disab. 21: 540?545.

Roen, D. H., and Willey, R. J. (1988). The effect of audience awareness on drafting and revising.Res. Teach. Eng. 22: 75?88.

Rohman, D. G. (1965). Pre-writing: The stage of discovery in the writing process.Coll. Comp. Commun. 16: 106?112.

Rosenshine, B., and Meister, C. (1994). Reciprocal teaching: A review of the research.Rev. Educ. Res. 64: 479?530.

Rowan, K. E. (1990). Cognitive correlates of explanatory writing skill: An analysis of individual differences.Written Commun. 7: 316?341.

Rubin, D. (1984). Social cognition and written communication.Written Commun. 1: 211?246.

Rude, C. D. (1991).Technical Editing, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

Rumelhart, D. E., and McClelland, J. L. (1981). Interactive processing through spreading activation. In Lesgold, A. M., and Perfetti, C. A., (eds.),Interactive Processes in Reading, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 37?60.

Saloman, G., Globerson, T., and Guterman, E. (1989). The computer as a zone of proximal development: Internalizing reading-related metacognitions from a reading partner.J. Educ. Psychol. 81: 620?627.

Sawyer, R. J., Graham, S., and Harris, K. R. (1992). Direct teaching, strategy instruction, and strategy instruction with explicit self regulation: Effects on learning disabled students' composition skills and self-efficacy.J. Educ. Psychol. 84: 340?352.

Scardamalia, M., and Bereiter, C. (1985). The development of dialectical processes in writing. In Olson, D., Terrance, N., and Hildyard, A. (eds.),Literacy, Language and Learning: The Nature and Consequences of Reading and Writing, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

Scholes, R. (1985).Textual Power, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.

Schriver, K. A. (1992). Teaching writers' to anticipate readers' needs.Written Commun. 9: 179?208.

Shanahan, T. (1987). The shared knowledge of reading and writing.Reading Psychol. 8: 93?102.

Shanklin, N. L. (1984). Writing as Creation of a Cybernetic System. Unpublished manuscript, University of Colorado at Denver.

Schumaker, J. B., Deshler, D. D., Nolan, S., Clark, F. L., Alley, G. R., and Warner, M. M. (1981). Error Monitoring: A Learning Strategy for Improving Academic Performance of LD Adolescents, Research Report 34, Institute for Research in Learning Disabilities, University of Kansas.

Smith, W., and Swan, M. (1978). Adjusting syntactic structures to varied levels of audience.J. Exp. Educ. 46: 29?34.

Sommers, N. (1980). Revision strategies of student writers and experienced adult writers.Coll. Comp. Commun. 31: 378?388.

Squire, L. R., Knowlton, B., and Musen, G. (1993). The structure and organization of memory. In Porter, L. W. and Rosenzweig, M. R. (eds.),Annual Review of Psychology (Vol. 44), Annual Reviews, Palo Alto, CA.

Stanovich, K. E., and Cunningham, A. E. (1991). Reading as constrained reasoning. In Sternberg, R. J., and Frensch, P. A. (eds.),Complex Problem Solving: Principles and Mechanisms, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 3?60.

Steelman, J. D. (1994). Revision strategies employed by middle level students using computers.J. Educ. Comput. Res. 11: 141?152.

Stoddard, B., and MacArthur, C. A. (1993). A peer editor strategy: Guiding learning-disabled students in response and revision.Res. Teach. Eng. 27: 76?102.

Swanson, H. L., and Berninger, V. W. (1994). Working memory as a source of individual differences in children's writing. In Carlson, J. S. (series ed.) and Butterfield, E. C. (vol. ed.),Advances in Cognition and Educational Practice, Vol. 2: Children's Writing: Toward a Process Theory of the Development of Skilled Writing, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 31?56.

Tierney, R. J., and Shanahan, T. (1991). Research on the reading/writing relationship: Interactions, transactions, and outcomes. In Barr, R., Kamil, M. L., Mosenthal, P., and Pearson, P. D. (eds.),Handbook of Reading Research (Vol. 2), Longman, New York.

Tierney, R. J., Soter, A., O'Flahavan, J. F., and McGinley, W. (1989). The effects of reading and writing upon thinking critically.Reading Res. Quart. 24: 134?173.

Traxler, M. J., and Gernsbacher, M. A. (1992). Improving communication through minimal feedback.Lang. Cognit. Proc. 7: 1?22.

Traxler, M. J., and Gernsbacher, M. A. (1993). Improving written communication through perspective taking.Lang. Cognit. Proc. 8: 311?334.

Tun, P. A. (1989). Age differences in processing expository and narrative text.J. Gerontol.: Psychol. Sci. 44: 9?15.

van Dijk, T. A., and Kintsch, W. (1983).Strategies of Discourse Comprehension, Academic, New York.

Vosniadou, S., Pearson, P. D., and Rogers, T. (1988). What causes children's failures to detect inconsistencies in text? Representation versus comparison difficulties.J. Educ. Psychol. 80: 27?39.

Wallace, D. L., and Hayes, J. R. (1990). Redefining revision for freshmen.Res. Teach. Eng. 25: 54?66.

Weaver, C. A., III, and Bryant, D. S. (1995). Monitoring of comprehension: The role of text difficulty in metamemory for narrative and expository text.Mem. Cognit. 23: 12?22.

Welch, M. (1992). The PLEASE strategy: A metacognitive learning strategy for improving the paragraph writing of students with mild learning disabilities.Learn. Disab. Quart. 15: 119?128.

Wittrock, M. C. (1984). Writing and the teaching of reading. In Jensen, J. M. (ed.),Composing and Comprehending, National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, IL, pp. 77?83.

Wong, B. Y. L., Butler, D. L., Ficzere, S. A., and Kuperis, S. (1994). Teaching problem learners revision skills and sensitivity to audience through two instructional modes: Student?teacher vs. student?student interactive dialogues.Learn. Disab. Res. Prac. 9: 78?90.

Zabrucky, K., and Moore, D. (1989). Children's ability to use three standards to evaluate their comprehension of text.Reading Res. Quart. 24: 336?352.

Zabrucky, K., and Ratner, H. H. (1986). Children's comprehension monitoring and recall of inconsistent stories.Child Devel. 57: 1401?1418.

Zabrucky, K., and Ratner, H. H. (1992). Effects of passage type on comprehension monitoring and recall in good and poor readers.J. Reading Behav. 24: 373?391.