Early life histories at medieval Mikulčice (ninth–tenth centuries AD, Czechia) based on carbon and nitrogen profiles of tooth dentine

Adamson MW (2004) Food in medieval times. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport Ambrose SH (2002) Controlled diet and climate experiments on nitrogen isotope ratios of rats. In: Ambrose SH, Katzenberg MA (eds) Biogeochemical approaches to paleodietary analysis. Springer, New York, pp 243–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47194-9_12 Ambrose SH, Norr L (1993) Experimental evidence for the relationship of the carbon isotope ratios of whole diet and dietary protein to those of bone collagen and carbonate. In: Lambert JB, Grupe G (eds) Prehistoric human bone: archaeology at the molecular level. Springer, New York, pp 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-02894-0_1 Aurelia LN, Mihaela H, Anca G, Lavinia I (2020) Use of millet grain in weaning pigs diet: effects on performance and health status. Arch Zootech 23:143–154. https://doi.org/10.2478/azibna-2020-0019 Balasse M, Bocherens H, Mariotti A, Ambrose SH (2001) Detection of dietary changes by intra-tooth carbon and nitrogen isotopic analysis: an experimental study of dentine collagen of cattle (Bos taurus). J Archaeol Sci 28:235–245. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1999.0535 Bartoňková D, Haderka K, Havlík L, Ludvíkovský J, Vašica J, Večerka R (1971) Magnae moraviae fontes historici IV. Universita J Evangelisty Purkyně, Brno Baumslag N (1987) Breastfeeding: Cultural practices and variations. In: Jelliffe D, Jelliffe E (eds) Advances in international maternal and child health 7. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 36–50 Beaumont J, Montgomery J (2016) The Great Irish Famine: identifying starvation in the tissues of victims using stable isotope analysis of bone and incremental dentine collagen. PLoS ONE 11:e0160065. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0160065 Beaumont J, Geber J, Powers N, Wilson A, Lee-Thorp J, Montgomery J (2013a) Victims and survivors: stable isotopes used to identify migrants from the Great Irish Famine to 19th century London. Am J Phys Anthropol 150:87–98. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22179 Beaumont J, Gledhill A, Lee-Thorp J, Montgomery J (2013b) Childhood diet: a closer examination of the evidence from dental tissues using stable isotope analysis of incremental human dentine. Archaeometry 55:277–295. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2012.00682.x Beaumont J, Atkins E-C, Buckberry J, Haydock H, Horne P, Howcroft R, Mackenzie K, Montgomery J (2018) Comparing apples and oranges: why infant bone collagen may not reflect dietary intake in the same way as dentine collagen. Am J Phys Anthropol 167:524–540. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23682 Bentley GR, Paine RR, Boldsen J (2001) Fertility changes with the prehistoric transition to agriculture: perspectives from reproductive ecology and paleodemography. In: Ellison PT (ed) Reproductive ecology and human evolution. Aldine de Gruyter, New York, pp 203–231 Berti C, Agostoni C, Davanzo R, Hyppönen E, Isolauri E, Meltzer HM, Steegers-Theunissen RPM, Cetin I (2017) Early-life nutritional exposures and lifelong health: immediate and long-lasting impacts of probiotics, vitamin D, and breastfeeding. Nutr Rev 75:83–97. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuw056 Brůžek J (2002) A method for visual determination of sex, using the human hip bone. Am J Phys Anthropol 117:157–168. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.10012 Brůžek J, Santos F, Dutailly B, Murail P, Cunha E (2017) Validation and reliability of the sex estimation of the human os coxae using freely available DSP2 software for bioarchaeology and forensic anthropology. Am J Phys Anthropol 164:440–449. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23282 Calce SE (2012) A new method to estimate adult age-at-death using the acetabulum. Am J Phys Anthropol 148:11–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22026 Canterbury JA, Beck CW, Dozier C, Hoffmeister K, Magaro J, Perrotti AG, Wright LE (2020) Bariatric surgery as a proxy for nutritional stress in stable isotope investigations of archaeological populations. J Archaeol Sci Rep 30:102196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102196 Cho SJ, Cho HK, Lee HS, Lee K (2010) Factors related to success in relactation. J Korean Soc Neonatol 17:232–238. https://doi.org/10.5385/jksn.2010.17.2.232 Cocozza C, Fernandes R, Ughi A, Groß M, Alexander MM (2021) Investigating infant feeding strategies at Roman Bainesse through Bayesian modelling of incremental dentine isotopic data. Int J Osteoarchaeol 31:429–439. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.2962 Craig-Atkins E, Towers J, Beaumont J (2018) The role of infant life histories in the construction of identities in death: an incremental isotope study of dietary and physiological status among children afforded differential burial. Am J Phys Anthropol 167:644–655. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23691 Czermak A, Fernández-Crespo T, Ditchfield PW, Lee-Thorp JA (2020) A guide for an anatomically sensitive dentine microsampling and age-alignment approach for human teeth isotopic sequences. Am J PhysAnthropol 173:776–783. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24126 Czosnykowska-Łukacka M, Królak-Olejnik B, Orczyk-Pawiłowicz M (2018) Breast milk macronutrient components in prolonged lactation. Nutrients 10:1893. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10121893 D’Ortenzio L, Brickley M, Schwarcz H, Prowse T (2015) You are not what you eat during physiological stress: isotopic evaluation of human hair. Am J Phys Anthropol 157:374–388. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22722 de Luca A, Boisseau N, Tea I, Louvet I, Robins RJ, Forhan A, Charles M-A, Hankard R (2012) δ15N and δ13C in hair from newborn infants and their mothers: a cohort study. Pediatr Res 71:598–604. https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2012.3 Demmelmair H, von Rosen J, Koletzko B (2006) Long-term consequences of early nutrition. Early Hum Dev 82:567–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2006.07.004 DeNiro MJ, Epstein S (1978) Influence of diet on the distribution of carbon isotopes in animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 42:495–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(78)90199-0 DeNiro MJ, Epstein S (1981) Influence of diet on the distribution of nitrogen isotopes in animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 45:341–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(81)90244-1 Dettwyler KA (2004) When to wean: biological versus cultural perspectives. Clin Obstet Gynecol 47:712–723. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.grf.0000137217.97573.01 Drtikolová Kaupová S, Cvrček J, Grossová I, Hadrava J, Půtová L, Velemínský P (2021) The impact of pathological conditions on carbon and nitrogen isotopic values in the bone collagen of individuals with known biographic data and medical history. Int J Osteoarchaeol 31:1105–1124. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.3022 Drtikolová Kaupová S, Velemínský P, Grossová I, Půtová L, Cvrček J (2022) Stable isotope values of carbon and nitrogen in hair compared to bone collagen from individuals with known medical histories (Bohemia, 19th–21st centuries). Int J Osteoarchaeol 32:996–1010. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.3125 Eerkens JW, Bartelink EJ (2013) Sex-biased weaning and early childhood diet among Middle Holocene hunter–gatherers in Central California. Am J Phys Anthropol 152:471–483. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22384 Eerkens JW, Berget AG, Bartelink EJ (2011) Estimating weaning and early childhood diet from serial micro-samples of dentin collagen. J Archaeol Sci 38:3101–3111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.010 Fernández-Crespo T, Schulting RJ, Czermak A, Ordoño J, Lorenzo JI, Rodanés JM (2022) The “post-weanling’s conundrum”: exploring the impact of infant and child feeding practices on early mortality in the Bronze Age burial cave of Moro de Alins, north-eastern Iberia, through stable isotope analysis. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 14:196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-022-01658-4 Fewtrell MS, Morgan JB, Duggan C, Gunnlaugsson G, Hibberd PL, Lucas A, Kleinman RE (2007) Optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding: what is the evidence to support current recommendations? Am J Clin Nutr 85:635S-638S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.2.635S Fildes V (2017) The culture and biology of breastfeeding: an historical review of Western Europe. In: Stuart-Macadam P, Dettwyler KA (eds) Breastfeeding: biocultural perspectives. Routledge, New York, pp 75–99 Fogel ML, Tuross N, Owsley DW (1989) Nitrogen isotope tracers of human lactation in modern and archaeological populations. In: Annual report of Geophysical Laboratory Carnegie Institution of Washington. pp 111–117 Fuller BT, Richards MP, Mays SA (2003) Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope variations in tooth dentine serial sections from Wharram Percy. J Archaeol Sci 30:1673–1684. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-4403(03)00073-6 Fuller BT, Fuller JL, Sage NE, Harris DA, O’Connell TC, Hedges REM (2005) Nitrogen balance and δ15N: why you’re not what you eat during nutritional stress. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 19:2497–2506. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.2090 Fuller BT, Fuller JL, Harris DA, Hedges REM (2006) Detection of breastfeeding and weaning in modern human infants with carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios. Am J Phys Anthropol 129:279–293. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20249 Halffman CM, Velemínský P (2015) Stable isotope evidence for diet in early medieval Great Moravia (Czech Republic). J Archaeol Sci Rep 2:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2014.12.006 Harris EF, McKee JH (1990) Tooth mineralization standards for blacks and whites from the middle southern United States. J Forensic Sci 35:859–872. https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS12898J Herold H (2012) Fortified settlements of the 9th and 10th centuries ad in Central Europe: structure, function and symbolism. Mediev Archaeol 56:60–84. https://doi.org/10.1179/0076609712Z.0000000003 Herrscher E (2004) Comportements socioculturels liés à l’allaitement et au sevrage: Le cas d’une population grenobloise sous l’Ancien Régime. Annales de la Fondation Fyssen 20:46–66 Herrscher E (2013) Détection isotopique des modalités d’allaitement et de sevrage à partir des ossements archéologiques. Cah Nutr Diet 48:75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnd.2012.12.004 Herrscher E, Goude G, Metz L (2017) Longitudinal study of stable isotope compositions of maternal milk and implications for the palaeo-diet of infants. Bull Mem Soc Anthropol Paris 29:131139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13219-017-0190-4 Hladík M (2020) Mikulčice and its hinterland: an archaeological model for Medieval settlement patterns on the middle course of the Morava River (7th to mid-13th centuries). In Mikulčice and Its Hinterland. Brill, Leiden Howcroft R, Eriksson G, Lidén K (2012) Conformity in diversity? Isotopic investigations of infant feeding practices in two iron age populations from Southern Öland, Sweden. Am J Phys Anthropol 149:217–230. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22113 Jay M (2009) Breastfeeding and weaning behaviour in archaeological populations: evidence from the isotopic analysis of skeletal materials. Child past 2:163–178. https://doi.org/10.1179/cip.2009.2.1.163 Jayachandran S, Kuziemko I (2011) Why do mothers breastfeed girls less than boys? Evidence and implications for child health in India. Q J Econ 126:1485–1538. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr029 Jílková M, Kaupová S, Černíková A, Poláček L, Brůžek J, Velemínský P (2019) Early medieval diet in childhood and adulthood and its reflection in the dental health of a Central European population (Mikulčice, 9th–10th centuries, Czech Republic). Arch Oral Biol 107:104526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2019.104526 Kalhous D (2020) Church organisation as a bearer of new culture and innovations and potential support of central power. In: Poláček L (ed) Great Moravian elites from Mikulčice. Archeologický ústav AV ČR Brno, Brno, pp 61–67 Katzenberg MA, Lovell NC (1999) Stable isotope variation in pathological bone. Int J Osteoarchaeol 9:316–324. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1212(199909/10)9:5%3c316::AID-OA500%3e3.0.CO;2-D Katzenberg MA, Herring DA, Saunders SR (1996) Weaning and infant mortality: evaluating the skeletal evidence. Am J Phys Anthropol 101(S23):177–199. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(1996)23+%3c177::AID-AJPA7%3e3.0.CO;2-2 Kaupová S, Herrscher E, Velemínský P, Cabut S, Poláček L, Brůžek J (2014) Urban and rural infant-feeding practices and health in early medieval Central Europe (9th–10th Century, Czech Republic). Am J Phys Anthropol 155:635–651. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22620 Kaupová S, Velemínský P, Herrscher E, Sládek V, Macháček J, Poláček L, Brůžek J (2018) Diet in transitory society: isotopic analysis of medieval population of Central Europe (ninth–eleventh century AD, Czech Republic). Archaeol Anthropol Sci 10:923–942. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-016-0427-8 Kempster B, Zanette L, Longstaffe FJ, MacDougall-Shackleton SA, Wingfield JC, Clinchy M (2007) Do stable isotopes reflect nutritional stress? Results from a laboratory experiment on song sparrows. Oecologia 151:365–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-006-0597-7 Kendall E, Millard A, Beaumont J (2021) The “weanling’s dilemma” revisited: evolving bodies of evidence and the problem of infant paleodietary interpretation. Am J Phys Anthropol 175(S72):57–78. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24207 King CL, Halcrow SE, Millard AR, Gröcke DR, Standen VG, Portilla M, Arriaza BT (2018) Let’s talk about stress, baby! Infant-feeding practices and stress in the ancient Atacama desert, Northern Chile. Am J Phys Anthropol 166:139–155. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23411 Kulp K (2000) Handbook of cereal science and technology, revised and expanded. Taylor & Francis, New York Kuna M et al (2018) Mikulčice. Archeologický atlas ČR. https://www.archeologickyatlas.cz/cs/lokace/mikulcice_ho_hradiste. Accessed 27 July 2022 Lamberti LM, Fischer Walker CL, Noiman A, Victora C, Black RE (2011) Breastfeeding and the risk for diarrhea morbidity and mortality. BMC Public Health 11:S15. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-S3-S15 Lovejoy CO (1985) Dental wear in the Libben population: its functional pattern and role in the determination of adult skeletal age at death. Am J Phys Anthropol 68:47–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330680105 Macháček J (2013) Great Moravian central places and their practical function, social significance and symbolic meaning. In: Ettel P, Werther L (eds) Zentrale Orte und Zentrale Räume des Frühmittelalters in Süddeutschland. RGZM – Tagungen 18. Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz, pp 235–248 Mays S (2010) The effects of infant feeding practices on infant and maternal health in a medieval community. Child past 3:63–78. https://doi.org/10.1179/cip.2010.3.1.63 McDade TW (2005) Life history, maintenance, and the early origins of immune function. Am J Hum Biol 17:81–94. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20095 Mekota A-M, Grupe G, Ufer S, Cuntz U (2006) Serial analysis of stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes in hair: monitoring starvation and recovery phases of patients suffering from anorexia nervosa. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 20:1604–1610. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.2477 Murail P, Brůžek J, Houët F, Cunha E (2005) DSP: a tool for probabilistic sex diagnosis using worldwide variability in hip-bone measurements. Bull Mem Soc Anthropol Paris 17:167–176. https://doi.org/10.4000/bmsap.1157 Muresan M (2011) Successful relactation—a case history. Breastfeed Med 6:233–239. https://doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2010.0062 Neuberger FM, Jopp E, Graw M, Püschel K, Grupe G (2013) Signs of malnutrition and starvation—reconstruction of nutritional life histories by serial isotopic analyses of hair. Forensic Sci Int 226:22–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.10.037 O’Connell TC, Kneale CJ, Tasevska N, Kuhnle GGC (2012) The diet-body offset in human nitrogen isotopic values: a controlled dietary study. Am J Phys Anthropol 149:426–434. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22140 Oksanen J, Guillaume Blanchet F, Kindt R, Legendre P, Minchin PR, O’Hara RB, Simpson GL, Solymos P, Stevens MHH, Wagner H (2015) vegan: community ecology package. R package version 2.2–1. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan. Accessed 10 June 2022 Palou A, Picó C (2009) Leptin intake during lactation prevents obesity and affects food intake and food preferences in later life. Appetite 52:249–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2008.09.013 Pearson JA, Hedges REM, Molleson TI, Özbek M (2010) Exploring the relationship between weaning and infant mortality: an isotope case study from Aşıklı Höyük and Çayönü Tepesi. Am J Phys Anthropol 143:448–457. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21335 Pérez-Escamilla R, Buccini GS, Segura-Pérez S, Piwoz E (2019) Perspective: should exclusive breastfeeding still be recommended for 6 months? Adv Nutr 10:931–943. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmz039 Phenice TW (1969) A newly developed visual method of sexing the os pubis. Am J Phys Anthropol 30:297–301. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330300214 Phillips V (1993) Relactation in mothers of children over 12 months. J Trop Ped 39:45–48. https://doi.org/10.1093/tropej/39.1.45 Piovanetti Y (2001) Breastfeeding beyond 12 months: an historical perspective. Pediatr Clin N Am 48:199–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-3955(05)70294-7 Poláček L (2008) Great Moravia, the power centre at mikulčice and the issue of the socio-economic structure. In: Velemínský P, Poláček L (eds) Studien zum Burgwall von Mikulčice VIII. Archeologický ústav AV ČR Brno, Brno, pp 11–44 Poláček L (2018) The Mikulčice-Valy stronghold and Great Moravia. Archeologický ústav AV ČR Brno, Brno Prowse TL, Saunders SR, Schwarcz HP, Garnsey P, Macchiarelli R, Bondioli L (2008) Isotopic and dental evidence for infant and young child feeding practices in an imperial Roman skeletal sample. Am J Phys Anthropol 137:294–308. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20870 Quinlan RJ (2007) Human parental effort and environmental risk. Proc R Soc B 274:121–125. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3690 R Core Team (2017) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/. Accessed 10 June 2022 Reitsema LJ (2013) Beyond diet reconstruction: stable isotope applications to human physiology, health, and nutrition. Am J Hum Biol 25:445–456. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.22398 Reitsema LJ, Muir AB (2015) Growth velocity and weaning δ15N “dips” during ontogeny in Macaca mulatta. Am J Phys Anthropol 157:347–357. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22713 Richards MP, Mays S, Fuller BT (2002) Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values of bone and teeth reflect weaning age at the Medieval Wharram Percy site, Yorkshire, UK. Am J Phys Anthropol 119:205–210. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.10124 Salesse K, Kaupová S, Brůžek J, Kuželka V, Velemínský P (2019) An isotopic case study of individuals with syphilis from the pathological-anatomical reference collection of the national museum in Prague (Czech Republic, 19th century A.D.). Int J Paleopathol 25:46–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpp.2019.04.001 Scheuer L, Black S, Schaefer MC (2008) Juvenile osteology: a laboratory and field manual, 1st edn. Academic Press, Cambridge Schmitt A (2005) Une nouvelle méthode pour estimer l’âge au décès des adultes à partir de la surface sacro-pelvienne iliaque. Bull Mem Soc Anthropol Paris 17:89–101. https://doi.org/10.4000/bmsap.943 Schmitt A (2008) Une nouvelle méthode pour discriminer les individus décédés avant ou après 40 ans à partir de la symphyse pubienne. J Med Leg Droit Med 51:15–24 Schoeninger MJ, DeNiro MJ (1984) Nitrogen and carbon isotopic composition of bone collagen from marine and terrestrial animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 48:625–639. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(84)90091-7 Schurr MR (1997) Stable nitrogen isotopes as evidence for the age of weaning at the Angel site: a comparison of isotopic and demographic measures of weaning age. J Archaeol Sci 24:919–927. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1996.0171 Schwarcz HP (2002) Some biochemical aspects of carbon isotopic paleodiet studies. In: Ambrose SH, Katzenberg MA (eds) Biogeochemical approaches to paleodietary analysis. Springer, New York, pp 189–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47194-9_10 Sellen DW (2001) Comparison of infant feeding patterns reported for nonindustrial populations with current recommendations. J Nutr 131:2707–2715. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/131.10.2707 Shamir R (2016) The benefits of breast feeding. Protein in neonatal and infant nutrition: recent updates 86:67–76. https://doi.org/10.1159/000442724 Smith BH (1991) Standards of human tooth formation and dental age assessment. In: Kelley MA, Larsen CS (eds) Advances in dental anthropology. Wiley, New York, pp 143–168 Solomons NW (2007) Malnutrition and infection: an update. Br J Nutr 98:S5–S10. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114507832879 Stewart NA, Gerlach RF, Gowland RL, Gron KJ, Montgomery J (2017) Sex determination of human remains from peptides in tooth enamel. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 114:13649–13654. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1714926115 Szpak P, Metcalfe JZ, Macdonald RA (2017) Best practices for calibrating and reporting stable isotope measurements in archaeology. J Archaeol Sci Rep 13:609–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.05.007 Tea I, De Luca A, Schiphorst A-M, Grand M, Barillé-Nion S, Mirallié E, Drui D, Krempf M, Hankard R, Tcherkez G (2021) Stable isotope abundance and fractionation in human diseases. Metabolites 11:370. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo11060370 Thorvaldsen G (2008) Was there a European breastfeeding pattern? Hist Fam 13:283–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hisfam.2008.08.001 Tomori C, Palmquist AEL, Quinn EA (2017) Breastfeeding: new anthropological approaches. Routledge, New York Tsutaya T, Yoneda M (2015) Reconstruction of breastfeeding and weaning practices using stable isotope and trace element analyses: a review. Am J Phys Anthropol 156:2–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22657 van der Haas VM, Garvie-Lok S, Bazaliiskii VI, Weber AW (2018) Evaluating sodium hydroxide usage for stable isotope analysis of prehistoric human tooth dentine. J Archaeol Sci Rep 20:80–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.04.013 Walker PL (2008) Sexing skulls using discriminant function analysis of visually assessed traits. Am J Phys Anthropol 136:39–50. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20776 Walter BS, DeWitte SN (2017) Urban and rural mortality and survival in Medieval England. Ann Hum Biol 44(4):338–348 Waters-Rist AL, Katzenberg MA (2010) The effect of growth on stable nitrogen isotope ratios in subadult bone collagen. Internat J Osteoarchaeol 20:172–191. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.1017 Waters-Rist AL, Bazaliiskii VI, Weber AW, Katzenberg MA (2011) Infant and child diet in Neolithic hunter-fisher-gatherers from cis-baikal, Siberia: intra-long bone stable nitrogen and carbon isotope ratios. Am J Phys Anthropol 146:225–241. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21568 Weber SA, Fuller D (2008) Millets and their role in early agriculture. Pragdhara 18:69–90 Williams CT, Buck CL, Sears J, Kitaysky AS (2007) Effects of nutritional restriction on nitrogen and carbon stable isotopes in growing seabirds. Oecologia 153:11–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-007-0717-z Wilson W, Milner J, Bulkan J, Ehlers P (2006) Weaning practices of the Makushi of Guyana and their relationship to infant and child mortality: a preliminary assessment of international recommendations. Am J Hum Biol 18:312–324. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20500 Wood JW, Milner GR, Harpending HC, Weiss KM, Cohen MN, Eisenberg LE, Hutchinson DL, Jankauskas R, Cesnys G, Katzenberg MA, Lukacs JR, McGrath JW, Roth EA, Ubelaker DH, Wilkinson RG (1992) The osteological paradox: problems of inferring prehistoric health from skeletal samples [and comments and reply]. Curr Anthropol 33:343–370. https://doi.org/10.1086/204084 World Health Organization (2009) Infant and young child feeding: model chapter for textbooks for medical students and allied health professionals. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK148965/. Accessed 01 June 2022 Yovsi RD, Keller H (2003) Breastfeeding: an adaptive process. Ethos 31:147–171. https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.2003.31.2.147