Drought adaptation in rural eastern Oklahoma in the 1930s: lessons for climate change adaptation research

Springer Science and Business Media LLC - Tập 13 - Trang 379-400 - 2007
Robert McLeman1, Dick Mayo2, Earl Strebeck3, Barry Smit4
1Department of Geography, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
2Sequoyah County Times, Sallisaw, USA
3Sequoyah County Historical Society, Sallisaw, USA
4Department of Geography, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada

Tóm tắt

In the mid-1930s, eastern Oklahoma, USA, suffered an unusually harsh mixture of droughts and extreme rainfall events that led to widespread crop failure over several years. These climatic conditions coincided with low commodity prices, agricultural restructuring and general economic collapse, creating tremendous hardship in rural and agriculturally dependent areas. Using a previously developed typology of agricultural adaptation, this paper reports empirical research conducted to identify the ways by which the rural population of Sequoyah County adapted to such conditions. Particular attention is given to categorizing the scale at which adaptation occurred, the actors involved and the constraints to implementation. The findings identify successes and opportunities missed by public policy makers, and suggest possible entry points for developing adaptation strategies for current and future, analogous situations that may arise as a result of climate change.

Tài liệu tham khảo

Adams R, Fleming R, Chang C, McCarol B, Rosenzweig C (1995) A reassessment of the economic effects of global climate change on US agriculture. Climatic Change 30(1):147–167 Arndt DS (2002) The Oklahoma Drought of 2001–2002. Event summary 2002–02, Oklahoma Climatological Survey, Norman, OK, 24 September 2002 Benedict MR (1966) Farm policies of the United States1790–1950: a study of their origins and development. Octagon Books, New York Bond JH, McKinley R, Banks EH (1940) Testimony of J.H. Bond, Assistant Director; R. McKinley, Farm Placement Supervisor and E.H. Banks, Farm Placement Supervisor, Texas State Employment Service, Austin. In: Select committee to investigate the interstate migration of destitute citizens, Oklahoma City Hearings, U.S. House of Representatives, Sixty-seventh Congress, 1812–1832 Borchert JR (1971) The Dust Bowl in the 1970s. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 61(1):1–22 Bradshaw B, Dolan A, Smit B (2004) Farm-level adaptation to climatic variability and change: crop diversification in the Canadian prairies. Climatic Change 67(1):119–141 Bryant C, Smit B, Brklacich M, Johnston T, Smithers J, Chiotti Q, Singh B (2000) Adaptation in Canadian agriculture to climatic variability and change. Climatic Change 45(1):181–201 Chiotti Q, Johnston T, Smit B, Ebel B (1997) Agricultural response to climate change: a preliminary investigation of farm-level adaptation in Southern Alberta. In: Ilbery B, Chiotti Q, Rickard T (eds) Agricultural restructuring and sustainability. CAB International, Wallingford Coleman WJ, Hockley HA (1940) Legal aspects of landlord-tenant relationships in Oklahoma. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater, OK Collins GP, Hill WG (1958) Prices received by Oklahoma farmers 1910–1957. Report P-297, June 1958. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater, OK Conger RD, Elder Jr GH (Eds) (1994) Families in troubled times: adapting to change in rural America. Walter de Gruyter, New York Downing TE, Ringius L, Hulme M, Waughray D (1997) Adapting to climate change in Africa. Mitig Adapt Strat Global Change 2(1):19–44 Easterling WE, Rosenberg NJ, McKenny MS, Jones CA (1992) An introduction to the methodology, the region of study, and a historical analog of climate change. Agric For Meteorol 59(1–2):3–15 El-Shaer HM, Rosenzweig C, Iglesias A, Eid MH, Hillel D (1997) Impact of climate change on possible scenarios for Egyptian agriculture in the future. Mitig Adapt Strat Global Change 1(3):233–250 Fuhrer J (2003) Agroecosystem responses to combinations of elevated CO2, ozone, and global climate change. Agric Ecosyst Environ 97(1–3):1–20 Glantz MH (1991) The use of analogies in forecasting ecological and societal responses to global warming. Environment 33(5):10–33 Graves GR (1982) Exodus from Indian Territory: the evolution of cotton culture in Eastern Oklahoma. Chron Oklahoma 60(2): 186–209 Gray F, Galloway HM (1959) Soils of Oklahoma. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater Gregory JN (1989) American exodus: the Dust Bowl migration and Okie culture in California. Oxford University Press, New York Hecht AD (1983) Drought in the Great Plains: history of societal response. J Climate Appl Meteorol 22:51–56 Hedges TR, Nelson P (1937) Current farm economics: Oklahoma, Series 49, Vol. 10, No. 4, August 1937. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater Hewes L (1942) Indian land in the Cherokee Country of Oklahoma. Econ Geogr 18(4): 401–412 Historical Census Browser (2004) University of Virginia Geospatial and Statistical Data Center. http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/index.html Cited 11 Jul 2006 Holm T (1979) Indian lobbyists: Cherokee opposition to the allotment of tribal lands. Am Indian Quart 5(2): 115–134 Holzschuh A (1939) A study of 6655 migrant households receiving emergency grants. Farm Security Administration, San Francisco Kelly PM, Adger WN (2000) Theory and practice in assessing vulnerability to climate change and facilitating adaptation. Climatic Change 47(4):325–352 Lange D, Taylor PS (1939) An American exodus: a record of human erosion. Reynal & Hitchcock, New York Lauenroth WK, Burke IC, Gutmann MP (2000) The structure and formation of ecosystems in the North American grassland region. Great Plains Res 9:223–259 Leichenko RM, O’Brien KL (2002) The dynamics of rural vulnerability to global change: the case of southern Africa. Mitig Adapt Strat Global Change 7(1):1–18 Lewandrowski JK, Brazee RJ (1993) Farm programs and climate change. Climatic Change 23(1):1–20 Liu H, Li X, Fischer G, Sun L (2004) Study on the impacts of climate change on China’s agriculture. Climatic Change 65(1–2):125–148 Lockeritz W (1978) The lessons of the Dust Bowl. Am Sci 66:560–569 Luo Q, Lin E (1999) Agricultural vulnerability and adaptation in developing countries: the Asia-Pacific region. Climatic Change 43(4):729–743 Maracchi G, Sirotenko O, Bindi M (2005) Impacts of present and future climate variability on agriculture and forestry in the temperate regions: Europe. Climatic Change 70(1–2):117–135 Maxwell S (2006) Heat, drought damage crops, cattle. Sequoyah County Times, Sallisaw, OK, 4 August 2006, p 1 McCarthy JJ, Canziani OF, Leary NA, Dokken DJ, White KS (2001) Climate Change 2001: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva McDean HC (1978) The “Okie” migration as a socio-economic necessity in Oklahoma. Red River Valley Hist Rev 3(1):77–92 McLeman R (2006) Migration out of 1930s rural Eastern Oklahoma: insights for climate change research. Great Plains Quart 26(1):27–40 McLeman R, Smit B (2006a) Migration as an adaptation to climate change. Climatic Change 76(1–2):31–53 McLeman R, Smit B (2006b) Vulnerability to climate change hazards and risks: crop and flood insurance. Can Geogr 50(2):217–226 McReynolds EC (1954) Oklahoma: a history of the Sooner state. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman McWilliams C. (1942) Ill fares the land: migrants and migratory labor in the United States. Little, Brown and Company, Boston Mizina SV, Smith JB, Gossen E, Spiecker KF, Witkowski SL (1999) An evaluation of adaptation options for climate change impacts on agriculture in Kazakhstan. Mitig Adapt Strat Global Change 4(1):25–41 Mock CJ (2000) Rainfall in the garden of the United States Great Plains, 1870–1889. Climatic Change 44(1):173–195 Moore AN, Sanders JT (1930) Credit problems of Oklahoma cotton farmers, with special reference to Garvin, Jackson, and Pittsburg counties. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater, OK Morgan HW, Morgan AH (1977) Oklahoma. W.W. Norton & Company, New York Motha RP, Baier W (2005) Impacts of present and future climate change and climate variability on agriculture in the temperate regions: North America. Climatic Change 70(1–2):137–164 National Agricultural Statistics Service (2002) Census of agriculture. US Department of Agriculture. http://www.nass.usda.gov Cited 11 Jul 2006 National Assessment Synthesis Team (2000) Climate change impacts on the United States: the potential consequences of climate variability and change. US Global Change Research Program. Cambridge University Press, New York Nyirfa WN, Harron B (2002) Assessment of climate change on the agricultural resources of the Canadian Prairies. Prairie Adaptation Research Collaborative, Regina, SK Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station (1948) A statistical handbook of Oklahoma agriculture. Stillwater Oklahoma Climatological Survey (2006) Drought monitoring tools. http://climate.ocs.ou.edu/rainfall_update.html Cited 11 Jul 2006 Reilly J, Tubiello F, McCarl B, Abler D, Darwin R, Fuglie K, Hollinger S, Izaurralde C, Jagtap S, Jones J, Mearns L, Ojima D, Paul E, Paustian K, Riha S, Rosenberg N, Rosenzweig C (2003) U.S. agriculture and climate change: new results. Climatic Change 57(1):43–69 Risser PG, Rice EL (1971) Diversity in tree species in Oklahoma upland forests. Ecology 52(5):876–880 Rosenzweig C, Hillel D (1993) The Dust Bowl of the 1930s: analog of greenhouse effect in the Great Plains? J Environ Qual 22(1):9–22 Saloutos T (1982) The American farmer and the New Deal. Iowa State University Press, Ames Sauchyn DJ, Stroich J, Beriault A (2003) A paleoclimatic context for the drought of 1999–2001 in the northern Great Plains of North America. Geogr J 169(2):158–167 Schindler DW, Donahue WF (2006) An impending water crisis in Canada’s western prairie provinces. Proc Natl Acad Sci 103(19):7210–7216 Schneider SH, Easterling WE, Mearns LO (2000) Adaptation: sensitivity to natural variability, agent assumptions and dynamic climate changes. Climatic Change 45(1):203–221 Singh GK, Siahpush M (2002) Increasing rural–urban gradients in US suicide mortality, 1970–1997. Am J Public Health 92(7):1161–1167 Sivakumar MVK, Das HP, Brunini O (2005) Impacts of present and future climate variability and change on agriculture and forestry in the arid and semi-arid tropics. Climatic Change 70(1–2):31–72 Smit B (1991) Decisions in agriculture in the face of uncertainty. In: Dzikowski P (ed) Changing climate in relation to sustainable agriculture. Proceedings of the Canadian Society of Agrometeorology, Fredericton, NB, July 1991 Smit B, Skinner M (2002) Adaptation options in agriculture to climate change: a typology. Mitig Adapt Strat Global Change 7(1):85–114 Smit B, Burton I, Klein RJT, Wandel J (2000) An anatomy of adaptation to climate change and variability. Climatic Change 45(1):223–251 Southern JH (1939) Farm tenancy in Oklahoma. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater, OK Stahnke C, Stiegler J, Gray F (1967) Soil survey laboratory data: selected soils of Sequoyah County, No. P-576, October 1967. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater, OK US Census Bureau (2005) Population estimates. http://www.census.gov/popest/counties Cited 11 Jul 2006 USDA Economic Research Service (2006) County-level unemployment and median household income for Oklahoma. http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/Unemployment/RDList2.asp?ST=OK Cited 11Jul 2006 USDA Weather Bureau (1936) Climatological data. Oklahoma Section, Vol. XLV US House of Representative (1940) Testimony of Wheeler Mayo, editor of Sequoyah County Times, Sallisaw, Okla. In: Select committee to investigate the interstate migration of destitute citizens, Oklahoma City hearings 5, 2122–2128 Wall E, Marzall K (2006) Adaptive capacity for climate change in Canadian rural communities. Local Environ 11(4):373–397 Wilhite DA (2003) Drought in the U.S. Great Plains. In: Potter T, Colman B (eds) Handbook of weather, climate and water. John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, NJ Woodhouse CA, Overpeck JT (1998) 2000 years of drought variability in the central United States. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 79(12):2693–2714 You SC (2001) Agricultural adaptation to climate change in China. J Environ Sci 13(2):192–197