Diaphragm Dysfunction: Diagnostic Approaches and Management Strategies

Journal of Clinical Medicine - Tập 5 Số 12 - Trang 113
Bruno‐Pierre Dubé1, Martin Dres2
1Département de Médecine, Service de Pneumologie, Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu du Centre Hospitalier de I’Université de Montréal (CHUM), Montréal, QC H2W 1T8, Canada
2AP-HP, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière Charles Foix, Service de Pneumologie et Réanimation Médicale (Département “R3S”), F-75013 Paris, France

Tóm tắt

The diaphragm is the main inspiratory muscle, and its dysfunction can lead to significant adverse clinical consequences. The aim of this review is to provide clinicians with an overview of the main causes of uni- and bi-lateral diaphragm dysfunction, explore the clinical and physiological consequences of the disease on lung function, exercise physiology and sleep and review the available diagnostic tools used in the evaluation of diaphragm function. A particular emphasis is placed on the clinical significance of diaphragm weakness in the intensive care unit setting and the use of ultrasound to evaluate diaphragmatic action.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Mizuno, 1991, Human respiratory muscles: Fibre morphology and capillary supply, Eur. Respir. J., 4, 587, 10.1183/09031936.93.04050587

Lieberman, 1973, Performance and histochemical composition of guinea pig and human diaphragm, J. Appl. Physiol., 34, 233, 10.1152/jappl.1973.34.2.233

Sanchez, 1985, Muscle fibre types in costal and crural diaphragm in normal men and in patients with moderate chronic respiratory disease, Bull. Eur. Physiopathol. Respir., 21, 351

Anraku, 2009, Surgical conditions of the diaphragm: Anatomy and physiology, Thorac. Surg. Clin., 19, 419, 10.1016/j.thorsurg.2009.08.002

Maish, 2010, The diaphragm, Surg. Clin. N. Am., 90, 955, 10.1016/j.suc.2010.07.005

Chetta, 2005, Chest radiography cannot predict diaphragm function, Respir. Med., 99, 39, 10.1016/j.rmed.2004.04.016

Aguirre, 2013, Phrenic nerve injury during cardiac surgery: Mechanisms, management and prevention, Heart Lung Circ., 22, 895, 10.1016/j.hlc.2013.06.010

Cohen, 1997, Phrenic nerve injury after coronary artery grafting: Is it always benign?, Ann. Thorac. Surg., 64, 148, 10.1016/S0003-4975(97)00288-9

Dimopoulou, 1998, Phrenic nerve dysfunction after cardiac operations: Electrophysiologic evaluation of risk factors, Chest, 113, 8, 10.1378/chest.113.1.8

Deng, 2003, Phrenic nerve injury associated with high free right internal mammary artery harvesting, Ann. Thorac. Surg., 76, 459, 10.1016/S0003-4975(03)00511-3

Wheeler, 1985, Etiology and prevention of topical cardiac hypothermia-induced phrenic nerve injury and left lower lobe atelectasis during cardiac surgery, Chest, 88, 680, 10.1378/chest.88.5.680

Tripp, 2001, Is phrenic nerve dysfunction after cardiac surgery related to internal mammary harvesting?, J. Card. Surg., 16, 228, 10.1111/j.1540-8191.2001.tb00512.x

Curtis, 1989, Elevated hemidiaphragm after cardiac operations: Incidence, prognosis, and relationship to the use of topical ice slush, Ann. Thorac. Surg., 48, 764, 10.1016/0003-4975(89)90667-X

Efthimiou, 1991, Diaphragm paralysis following cardiac surgery: Role of phrenic nerve cold injury, Ann. Thorac. Surg., 52, 1005, 10.1016/0003-4975(91)91268-Z

McCaul, 2001, Transient hemi-diaphragmatic paralysis following neck surgery: Report of a case and review of the literature, J. R. Coll. Surg. Edinb., 46, 186

Moorthy, 1983, Transient paralysis of the diaphragm following radical neck surgery, Laryngoscope, 93, 642, 10.1002/lary.1983.93.5.642

Manni, 1991, Phrenic nerve paralysis following neck dissection, Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol., 248, 132, 10.1007/BF00178921

Goffart, 1988, Phrenic nerve paralysis complicating cervicofacial surgery, Acta Otorhinolaryngol. Belg., 42, 564

Dorffner, 1997, Diaphragmatic dysfunction after heart or lung transplantation, J. Heart Lung Transplant., 16, 566

Sheridan, 1995, Incidence of phrenic neuropathy after isolated lung transplantation. The Loyola University Lung Transplant Group, J. Heart Lung Transplant., 14, 684

McAlister, 1993, Right phrenic nerve injury in orthotopic liver transplantation, Transplantation, 55, 826, 10.1097/00007890-199304000-00027

Smyrniotis, 1998, Diaphragmatic nerve palsy in young children following liver transplantation. Successful treatment by plication of the diaphragm, Transpl. Int., 11, 281

Weng, 2010, Isolated unilateral brachial neuritis of the phrenic nerve (parsonage-turner syndrome) in a marathon runner with exertional dyspnea, Sports Health, 2, 307, 10.1177/1941738110366386

Tsao, 2006, Phrenic neuropathy due to neuralgic amyotrophy, Neurology, 66, 1582, 10.1212/01.wnl.0000216140.25497.40

Nardone, 2000, Respiratory weakness in neuralgic amyotrophy: Report of two cases with phrenic nerve involvement, Neurol. Sci., 21, 177, 10.1007/s100720070094

Jeon, 2016, An early treated neuralgic amyotrophy with bilateral phrenic nerve involvement with a favorable outcome, Neurol. India, 64, 566, 10.4103/0028-3886.181578

Lahrmann, 1999, Neuralgic amyotrophy with phrenic nerve involvement, Muscle Nerve, 22, 437, 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4598(199904)22:4<437::AID-MUS2>3.0.CO;2-F

Rison, 2011, Bilateral phrenic neuropathies in a diabetic patient responsive to intravenous immunoglobulin: A case report, Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg., 113, 788, 10.1016/j.clineuro.2011.08.012

Crausman, 2009, Idiopathic diaphragmatic paralysis: Bell’s palsy of the diaphragm?, Lung, 187, 153, 10.1007/s00408-009-9140-z

Chen, 1996, Motor neuron disease presenting as acute respiratory failure: A clinical and pathological study, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 60, 455, 10.1136/jnnp.60.4.455

Massey, 1984, Motor neuron disease presenting with respiratory failure. Report of two cases, Postgrad. Med., 76, 216, 10.1080/00325481.1984.11698828

Matias, 1996, Motor neuron disease presenting with respiratory failure, J. Neurol. Sci., 139, 117, 10.1016/0022-510X(96)00089-5

Ganapathy, 1985, Phrenic nerve conduction time in guillain-barre syndrome, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 48, 245, 10.1136/jnnp.48.3.245

Shahrizaila, 2006, Respiratory involvement in inherited primary muscle conditions, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 77, 1108, 10.1136/jnnp.2005.078881

Stambler, 1998, Prognostic indicators of survival in ALS. Als CNTF Treatment Study Group, Neurology, 50, 66, 10.1212/WNL.50.1.66

Czaplinski, 2006, Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) as an indicator of survival and disease progression in an ALS clinic population, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 77, 390, 10.1136/jnnp.2005.072660

Arnulf, 2000, Sleep disorders and diaphragmatic function in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 161, 849, 10.1164/ajrccm.161.3.9805008

Rubin, 1983, Shrinking lung syndrome in SLE—A clinical pathologic study, J. Rheumatol., 10, 973

Hardy, 2001, Bilateral phrenic paralysis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus, Chest, 119, 1274, 10.1378/chest.119.4.1274

Laroche, 1989, Diaphragm strength in the shrinking lung syndrome of systemic lupus erythematosus, Q. J. Med., 71, 429

Henderson, 2013, Shrinking lung syndrome as a manifestation of pleuritis: A new model based on pulmonary physiological studies, J. Rheumatol., 40, 273, 10.3899/jrheum.121048

Toya, 2009, Association of the shrinking lung syndrome in systemic lupus erythematosus with pleurisy: A systematic review, Semin. Arthritis Rheum., 39, 30, 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2008.04.003

Teixeira, 2005, Diaphragmatic dysfunction in patients with idiopathic inflammatory myopathies, Neuromuscul. Disord., 15, 32, 10.1016/j.nmd.2004.09.006

Maher, 1998, Diagnostic difficulties in myasthenia gravis, Muscle Nerve, 21, 577, 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4598(199805)21:5<577::AID-MUS3>3.0.CO;2-5

Siafakas, 1992, Respiratory muscle strength in hypothyroidism, Chest, 102, 189, 10.1378/chest.102.1.189

Laroche, 1988, Hypothyroidism presenting with respiratory muscle weakness, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 138, 472, 10.1164/ajrccm/138.2.472

Murciano, 1994, Diaphragmatic function in severely malnourished patients with anorexia nervosa. Effects of renutrition, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 150, 1569, 10.1164/ajrccm.150.6.7952616

Similowski, 1991, Contractile properties of the human diaphragm during chronic hyperinflation, N. Engl. J. Med., 325, 917, 10.1056/NEJM199109263251304

Polkey, 1996, Diaphragm strength in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 154, 1310, 10.1164/ajrccm.154.5.8912741

Rochester, 1985, Determinants of maximal inspiratory pressure in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 132, 42

Hermans, 2010, Increased duration of mechanical ventilation is associated with decreased diaphragmatic force: A prospective observational study, Crit. Care, 14, R127, 10.1186/cc9094

Demoule, 2013, Diaphragm dysfunction on admission to the intensive care unit. Prevalence, risk factors, and prognostic impact—A prospective study, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 188, 213, 10.1164/rccm.201209-1668OC

Dres, M., Dube, B.P., Mayaux, J., Delemazure, J., Reuter, D., Brochard, L., Similowski, T., and Demoule, A. (2016). Coexistence and impact of limb muscle and diaphragm weakness at time of liberation from mechanical ventilation in medical ICU patients. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.

Dres, 2012, Diaphragm electromyographic activity as a predictor of weaning failure, Intensive Care Med., 38, 2017, 10.1007/s00134-012-2700-3

Durand, 2007, Respiratory weakness is associated with limb weakness and delayed weaning in critical illness, Crit. Care Med., 35, 2007, 10.1097/01.ccm.0000281450.01881.d8

Jung, 2016, Diaphragmatic dysfunction in patients with ICU-acquired weakness and its impact on extubation failure, Intensive Care Med., 42, 853, 10.1007/s00134-015-4125-2

Kim, 2011, Diaphragm dysfunction assessed by ultrasonography: Influence on weaning from mechanical ventilation, Crit. Care Med., 39, 2627, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182266408

Ferrari, 2014, Diaphragm ultrasound as a new index of discontinuation from mechanical ventilation, Crit. Ultrasound J., 6, 8, 10.1186/2036-7902-6-8

DiNino, 2014, Diaphragm ultrasound as a predictor of successful extubation from mechanical ventilation, Thorax, 69, 423, 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-204111

Laghi, 2003, Is weaning failure caused by low-frequency fatigue of the diaphragm?, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 167, 120, 10.1164/rccm.200210-1246OC

Kim, 2010, An evaluation of diaphragmatic movement by M-mode sonography as a predictor of pulmonary dysfunction after upper abdominal surgery, Anesth. Analg., 110, 1349, 10.1213/ANE.0b013e3181d5e4d8

Jiang, 2004, Ultrasonographic evaluation of liver/spleen movements and extubation outcome, Chest, 126, 179, 10.1016/S0012-3692(15)32912-3

Medrinal, 2016, Respiratory weakness after mechanical ventilation is associated with one-year mortality—A prospective study, Crit. Care, 20, 231, 10.1186/s13054-016-1418-y

Levine, 2008, Rapid disuse atrophy of diaphragm fibers in mechanically ventilated humans, N. Engl. J. Med., 358, 1327, 10.1056/NEJMoa070447

Zergeroglu, 2003, Mechanical ventilation-induced oxidative stress in the diaphragm, J. Appl. Physiol., 95, 1116, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00824.2002

Grosu, 2012, Diaphragm muscle thinning in patients who are mechanically ventilated, Chest, 142, 1455, 10.1378/chest.11-1638

Falk, 2006, Mechanical ventilation promotes redox status alterations in the diaphragm, J. Appl. Physiol., 101, 1017, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00104.2006

Shanely, 2002, Mechanical ventilation-induced diaphragmatic atrophy is associated with oxidative injury and increased proteolytic activity, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 166, 1369, 10.1164/rccm.200202-088OC

Levine, 2011, Increased proteolysis, myosin depletion, and atrophic AKT-FOXO signaling in human diaphragm disuse, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 183, 483, 10.1164/rccm.200910-1487OC

McClung, 2007, Caspase-3 regulation of diaphragm myonuclear domain during mechanical ventilation-induced atrophy, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 175, 150, 10.1164/rccm.200601-142OC

Hooijman, 2015, Diaphragm muscle fiber weakness and ubiquitin-proteasome activation in critically ill patients, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 191, 1126, 10.1164/rccm.201412-2214OC

Demoule, 2016, Patterns of diaphragm function in critically ill patients receiving prolonged mechanical ventilation: A prospective longitudinal study, Ann. Intensive Care, 6, 75, 10.1186/s13613-016-0179-8

Jaber, 2011, Rapidly progressive diaphragmatic weakness and injury during mechanical ventilation in humans, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 183, 364, 10.1164/rccm.201004-0670OC

Anzueto, 1997, Effects of prolonged controlled mechanical ventilation on diaphragmatic function in healthy adult baboons, Crit. Care Med., 25, 1187, 10.1097/00003246-199707000-00021

Sassoon, 2002, Altered diaphragm contractile properties with controlled mechanical ventilation, J. Appl. Physiol., 92, 2585, 10.1152/japplphysiol.01213.2001

Radell, 2002, Effects of prolonged mechanical ventilation and inactivity on piglet diaphragm function, Intensive Care Med., 28, 358, 10.1007/s00134-002-1207-8

Powers, 2002, Mechanical ventilation results in progressive contractile dysfunction in the diaphragm, J. Appl. Physiol., 92, 1851, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00881.2001

Testelmans, 2006, Rocuronium exacerbates mechanical ventilation-induced diaphragm dysfunction in rats, Crit. Care Med., 34, 3018, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000245783.28478.AD

Ebihara, 2002, Mechanical ventilation protects against diaphragm injury in sepsis: Interaction of oxidative and mechanical stresses, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 165, 221, 10.1164/ajrccm.165.2.2108041

Jung, 2014, Sepsis is associated with a preferential diaphragmatic atrophy: A critically ill patient study using tridimensional computed tomography, Anesthesiology, 120, 1182, 10.1097/ALN.0000000000000201

Lanone, 2005, Diaphragmatic fatigue during sepsis and septic shock, Intensive Care Med., 31, 1611, 10.1007/s00134-005-2748-4

Supinski, 2013, Diaphragm weakness in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients, Crit. Care, 17, R120, 10.1186/cc12792

Divangahi, 2004, Preferential diaphragmatic weakness during sustained pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infection, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 169, 679, 10.1164/rccm.200307-949OC

Callahan, 2009, Sepsis-induced myopathy, Crit. Care Med., 37, S354, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181b6e439

Piehler, 1982, Unexplained diaphragmatic paralysis: A harbinger of malignant disease?, J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., 84, 861, 10.1016/S0022-5223(19)38936-6

Lisboa, 1986, Inspiratory muscle function in unilateral diaphragmatic paralysis, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 134, 488

Hart, 2002, Effect of severe isolated unilateral and bilateral diaphragm weakness on exercise performance, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 165, 1265, 10.1164/rccm.2110016

Steier, 2008, Sleep-disordered breathing in unilateral diaphragm paralysis or severe weakness, Eur. Respir. J., 32, 1479, 10.1183/09031936.00018808

Oruc, 2016, Is polysomnographic examination necessary for subjects with diaphragm pathologies?, Clinics, 71, 506, 10.6061/clinics/2016(09)04

Laroche, 1988, Clinical significance of severe isolated diaphragm weakness, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 138, 862, 10.1164/ajrccm/138.4.862

Sandham, 1977, Acute supine respiratory failure due to bilateral diaphragmatic paralysis, Chest, 72, 96, 10.1378/chest.72.1.96

Kumar, 2004, Dyspnea as the predominant manifestation of bilateral phrenic neuropathy, Mayo Clin. Proc., 79, 1563, 10.4065/79.12.1563

Hughes, 1999, Long-term recovery of diaphragm strength in neuralgic amyotrophy, Eur. Respir. J., 13, 379, 10.1183/09031936.99.13237999

Qureshi, 2009, Diaphragm paralysis, Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 30, 315, 10.1055/s-0029-1222445

Labanowski, 1996, Sleep and neuromuscular disease: Frequency of sleep-disordered breathing in a neuromuscular disease clinic population, Neurology, 47, 1173, 10.1212/WNL.47.5.1173

Guilleminault, 2002, Sleep-disordered breathing in neuromuscular disease, Curr. Treat. Opt. Neurol., 4, 107, 10.1007/s11940-002-0018-0

Aboussouan, 2015, Sleep-disordered breathing in neuromuscular disease, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 191, 979, 10.1164/rccm.201412-2224CI

(2002). ATS/ERS statement on respiratory muscle testing. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 166, 518–624.

Multz, 1990, Maximal inspiratory pressure is not a reliable test of inspiratory muscle strength in mechanically ventilated patients, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 142, 529, 10.1164/ajrccm/142.3.529

Aldrich, 1995, Maximal inspiratory pressure: Does reproducibility indicate full effort?, Thorax, 50, 40, 10.1136/thx.50.1.40

Leech, 1983, Respiratory pressures and function in young adults, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 128, 17, 10.1164/arrd.1983.128.1.17

Vincken, 1987, Maximal static respiratory pressures in adults: Normal values and their relationship to determinants of respiratory function, Bull. Eur. Physiopathol. Respir., 23, 435

Ringqvist, 1966, The ventilatory capacity in healthy subjects. An analysis of causal factors with special reference to the respiratory forces, Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Investig. Suppl., 88, 5

Wilson, 1984, Predicted normal values for maximal respiratory pressures in caucasian adults and children, Thorax, 39, 535, 10.1136/thx.39.7.535

Laroche, 1988, Diaphragm strength in patients with recent hemidiaphragm paralysis, Thorax, 43, 170, 10.1136/thx.43.3.170

Mills, 2001, Tracheal tube pressure change during magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves as an indicator of diaphragm strength on the intensive care unit, Br. J. Anaesth., 87, 876, 10.1093/bja/87.6.876

Mills, 1996, Bilateral magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves from an anterolateral approach, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 154, 1099, 10.1164/ajrccm.154.4.8887614

Hamnegaard, 1995, Mouth pressure in response to magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves, Thorax, 50, 620, 10.1136/thx.50.6.620

Cattapan, 2003, Can diaphragmatic contractility be assessed by airway twitch pressure in mechanically ventilated patients?, Thorax, 58, 58, 10.1136/thorax.58.1.58

Hamnegard, 1996, Clinical assessment of diaphragm strength by cervical magnetic stimulation of the phrenic nerves, Thorax, 51, 1239, 10.1136/thx.51.12.1239

Brophy, 1988, Assessment of diaphragm weakness, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 137, 877, 10.1164/ajrccm/137.4.877

Alexander, 1966, Diaphragm movements and the diagnosis of diaphragmatic paralysis, Clin. Radiol., 17, 79, 10.1016/S0009-9260(66)80128-9

Armstrong, 1993, Value of fluoroscopy in patients with suspected bilateral hemidiaphragmatic paralysis, AJR Am. J. Roentgenol., 160, 29, 10.2214/ajr.160.1.8416639

Davis, 1976, Diaphragm function and alveolar hypoventilation, Q. J. Med., 45, 87

Pereira, 2006, Idiopathic bilateral diaphragmatic paresis, J. Bras. Pneumol., 32, 481, 10.1590/S1806-37132006000500017

Zambon, M., Greco, M., Bocchino, S., Cabrini, L., Beccaria, P.F., and Zangrillo, A. (2016). Assessment of diaphragmatic dysfunction in the critically ill patient with ultrasound: A systematic review. Intensive Care Med.

Matamis, 2013, Sonographic evaluation of the diaphragm in critically ill patients. Technique and clinical applications, Intensive Care Med., 39, 801, 10.1007/s00134-013-2823-1

Vivier, 2012, Diaphragm ultrasonography to estimate the work of breathing during non-invasive ventilation, Intensive Care Med., 38, 796, 10.1007/s00134-012-2547-7

Goligher, 2015, Measuring diaphragm thickness with ultrasound in mechanically ventilated patients: Feasibility, reproducibility and validity, Intensive Care Med., 41, 642, 10.1007/s00134-015-3687-3

Boon, 2013, Two-dimensional ultrasound imaging of the diaphragm: Quantitative values in normal subjects, Muscle Nerve, 47, 884, 10.1002/mus.23702

Wait, 1989, Diaphragmatic thickness-lung volume relationship in vivo, J. Appl. Physiol., 67, 1560, 10.1152/jappl.1989.67.4.1560

Baria, 2014, B-mode ultrasound assessment of diaphragm structure and function in patients with copd, Chest, 146, 680, 10.1378/chest.13-2306

Hellyer, N.J., Andreas, N.M., Bernstetter, A.S., Cieslak, K.R., Donahue, G.F., Steiner, E.A., Hollman, J.H., and Boon, A.J. (2016). Comparison of diaphragm thickness measurements among postures via ultrasound imaging. PM R.

McCool, 1997, Variability of diaphragm structure among healthy individuals, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 155, 1323, 10.1164/ajrccm.155.4.9105074

Summerhill, 2008, Monitoring recovery from diaphragm paralysis with ultrasound, Chest, 133, 737, 10.1378/chest.07-2200

Gottesman, 1997, Ultrasound evaluation of the paralyzed diaphragm, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 155, 1570, 10.1164/ajrccm.155.5.9154859

Bruin, 1997, Diaphragm thickness and inspiratory strength in patients with duchenne muscular dystrophy, Thorax, 52, 474, 10.1136/thx.52.5.472

Ueki, 1995, In vivo assessment of diaphragm contraction by ultrasound in normal subjects, Thorax, 50, 1157, 10.1136/thx.50.11.1157

Umbrello, 2015, Diaphragm ultrasound as indicator of respiratory effort in critically ill patients undergoing assisted mechanical ventilation: A pilot clinical study, Crit. Care, 19, 161, 10.1186/s13054-015-0894-9

Boon, 2014, Sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic ultrasound in the diagnosis of phrenic neuropathy, Neurology, 83, 1264, 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000841

Fantini, 2016, Ultrasound assessment of diaphragmatic function in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Respirology, 21, 932, 10.1111/resp.12759

Antenora, F., Fantini, R., Iattoni, A., Castaniere, I., Sdanganelli, A., Livrieri, F., Tonelli, R., Zona, S., Monelli, M., and Clini, E.M. (2016). Prevalence and outcomes of diaphragmatic dysfunction assessed by ultrasound technology during acute exacerbation of COPD: A pilot study. Respirology.

Blumhof, 2016, Change in diaphragmatic thickness during the respiratory cycle predicts extubation success at various levels of pressure support ventilation, Lung, 194, 519, 10.1007/s00408-016-9911-2

Boussuges, 2009, Diaphragmatic motion studied by M-mode ultrasonography: Methods, reproducibility, and normal values, Chest, 135, 391, 10.1378/chest.08-1541

Lerolle, 2009, Ultrasonographic diagnostic criterion for severe diaphragmatic dysfunction after cardiac surgery, Chest, 135, 401, 10.1378/chest.08-1531

Houston, 1995, Comparison of ultrasound with fluoroscopy in the assessment of suspected hemidiaphragmatic movement abnormality, Clin. Radiol., 50, 95, 10.1016/S0009-9260(05)82987-3

Steier, 2011, Screening for sleep-disordered breathing in neuromuscular disease using a questionnaire for symptoms associated with diaphragm paralysis, Eur. Respir. J., 37, 400, 10.1183/09031936.00036210

Berry, 2010, Best clinical practices for the sleep center adjustment of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) in stable chronic alveolar hypoventilation syndromes, J. Clin. Sleep Med., 6, 491, 10.5664/jcsm.27941

Douglass, 1960, The prognosis in idiopathic diaphragmatic paralysis, Dis. Chest, 37, 294, 10.1378/chest.37.3.294

Dernaika, 2008, Spontaneous recovery in idiopathic unilateral diaphragmatic paralysis, Respir. Care, 53, 351

Tsairis, 1972, Natural history of brachial plexus neuropathy. Report on 99 patients, Arch. Neurol., 27, 109, 10.1001/archneur.1972.00490140013004

Polkey, M.I., Lyall, R.A., Yang, K., Johnson, E., Leigh, P.N., and Moxham, J. (2016). Respiratory muscle strength as predictive biomarker for survival in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.

Oo, 1999, Delayed diaphragm recovery in 12 patients after high cervical spinal cord injury. A retrospective review of the diaphragm status of 107 patients ventilated after acute spinal cord injury, Spinal Cord, 37, 117, 10.1038/sj.sc.3100775

Gosselink, 2011, Impact of inspiratory muscle training in patients with COPD: What is the evidence?, Eur. Respir. J., 37, 416, 10.1183/09031936.00031810

Hill, 2006, High-intensity inspiratory muscle training in COPD, Eur. Respir. J., 27, 1119, 10.1183/09031936.06.00105205

Vanlandewijck, 2006, Respiratory muscle training in persons with spinal cord injury: A systematic review, Respir. Med., 100, 1886, 10.1016/j.rmed.2006.02.029

Berlowitz, D.J., and Tamplin, J. (2013). Respiratory muscle training for cervical spinal cord injury. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.

Moodie, 2011, Inspiratory muscle training increases inspiratory muscle strength in patients weaning from mechanical ventilation: A systematic review, J. Physiother., 57, 213, 10.1016/S1836-9553(11)70051-0

Kodric, 2013, Inspiratory muscle training for diaphragm dysfunction after cardiac surgery, J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., 145, 819, 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2012.07.087

Groth, 2010, Diaphragm plication for eventration or paralysis: A review of the literature, Ann. Thorac. Surg., 89, S2146, 10.1016/j.athoracsur.2010.03.021

Groth, 2010, Laparoscopic diaphragmatic plication for diaphragmatic paralysis and eventration: An objective evaluation of short-term and midterm results, J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., 139, 1452, 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2009.10.020

Benham, 2010, Successful treatment of shrinking lung syndrome with rituximab in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus, J. Clin. Rheumatol., 16, 68, 10.1097/RHU.0b013e3181d0757f

Urowitz, 1992, The “shrinking lungs syndrome” in systemic lupus erythematosus—Improvement with corticosteroid therapy, J. Rheumatol., 19, 1970

Karim, 2002, Presentation and prognosis of the shrinking lung syndrome in systemic lupus erythematosus, Semin. Arthritis Rheum., 31, 289, 10.1053/sarh.2002.32555

Petrovic, 2009, Idiopathic diaphragmatic paralysis—Satisfactory improvement of inspiratory muscle function by inspiratory muscle training, Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol., 165, 266, 10.1016/j.resp.2008.11.010

Koessler, 2001, 2 years’ experience with inspiratory muscle training in patients with neuromuscular disorders, Chest, 120, 765, 10.1378/chest.120.3.765

Sharshar, 2003, Early predictors of mechanical ventilation in guillain-barre syndrome, Crit. Care Med., 31, 278, 10.1097/00003246-200301000-00044

Miller, 1999, Practice parameter: The care of the patient with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (an evidence-based review), Muscle Nerve, 22, 1104, 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4598(199908)22:8<1104::AID-MUS15>3.0.CO;2-2

Lawn, 2001, Anticipating mechanical ventilation in guillain-barre syndrome, Arch. Neurol., 58, 893, 10.1001/archneur.58.6.893

Chevrolet, 1991, Repeated vital capacity measurements as predictive parameters for mechanical ventilation need and weaning success in the guillain-barre syndrome, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 144, 814, 10.1164/ajrccm/144.4.814

Bourke, 2006, Effects of non-invasive ventilation on survival and quality of life in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A randomised controlled trial, Lancet Neurol., 5, 140, 10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70326-4

Aboussouan, 2001, Objective measures of the efficacy of noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Muscle Nerve, 24, 403, 10.1002/1097-4598(200103)24:3<403::AID-MUS1013>3.0.CO;2-3

Aboussouan, 1997, Effect of noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation on survival in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Ann. Intern. Med., 127, 450, 10.7326/0003-4819-127-6-199709150-00006

Ambrosino, 2009, Chronic respiratory care for neuromuscular diseases in adults, Eur. Respir. J., 34, 444, 10.1183/09031936.00182208

Annane, D., Orlikowski, D., and Chevret, S. (2014). Nocturnal mechanical ventilation for chronic hypoventilation in patients with neuromuscular and chest wall disorders. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.

Farrero, 2005, Survival in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with home mechanical ventilation: The impact of systematic respiratory assessment and bulbar involvement, Chest, 127, 2132, 10.1378/chest.127.6.2132

Kleopa, 1999, Bipap improves survival and rate of pulmonary function decline in patients with ALS, J. Neurol. Sci., 164, 82, 10.1016/S0022-510X(99)00045-3

Pinto, 1995, Respiratory assistance with a non-invasive ventilator (BIPAP) in MND/ALS patients: Survival rates in a controlled trial, J. Neurol. Sci., 129, 19, 10.1016/0022-510X(95)00052-4

Ward, 2005, Randomised controlled trial of non-invasive ventilation (NIV) for nocturnal hypoventilation in neuromuscular and chest wall disease patients with daytime normocapnia, Thorax, 60, 1019, 10.1136/thx.2004.037424

Legras, 2016, Diaphragm pacing: The state of the art, J. Thorac. Dis., 8, S376, 10.21037/jtd.2016.03.97

Posluszny, 2014, Multicenter review of diaphragm pacing in spinal cord injury: Successful not only in weaning from ventilators but also in bridging to independent respiration, J. Trauma Acute Care Surg., 76, 303, 10.1097/TA.0000000000000112

Onders, 2009, Complete worldwide operative experience in laparoscopic diaphragm pacing: Results and differences in spinal cord injured patients and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients, Surg. Endosc., 23, 1433, 10.1007/s00464-008-0223-3

Elefteriades, 1992, Long-term follow-up of bilateral pacing of the diaphragm in quadriplegia, N. Engl. J. Med., 326, 1433, 10.1056/NEJM199205213262113

Diep, 2015, Diaphragm pacing without tracheostomy in congenital central hypoventilation syndrome patients, Respiration, 89, 534, 10.1159/000381401

Glenn, 1970, Central hypoventilation; long-term ventilatory assistance by radiofrequency electrophrenic respiration, Ann. Surg., 172, 755, 10.1097/00000658-197010000-00020

Judson, 1968, Radio-frequency electrophrenic respiration. Long-term application to a patient with primary hypoventilation, JAMA, 203, 1033, 10.1001/jama.1968.03140120031007

Onders, 2014, Extended use of diaphragm pacing in patients with unilateral or bilateral diaphragm dysfunction: A new therapeutic option, Surgery, 156, 776, 10.1016/j.surg.2014.07.021

Onders, 2014, Final analysis of the pilot trial of diaphragm pacing in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with long-term follow-up: Diaphragm pacing positively affects diaphragm respiration, Am. J. Surg., 207, 393, 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2013.08.039

Salachas, 2012, Diaphragm pacing improves sleep in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Amyotroph. Lateral. Scler., 13, 44, 10.3109/17482968.2011.597862

Tanguy, 2016, Early diaphragm pacing in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (respistimals): A randomised controlled triple-blind trial, Lancet Neurol., 15, 1217, 10.1016/S1474-4422(16)30233-2

McDermott, 2015, Safety and efficacy of diaphragm pacing in patients with respiratory insufficiency due to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (DiPALS): A multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial, Lancet Neurol., 14, 883, 10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00152-0

Sassoon, 2004, Assist-control mechanical ventilation attenuates ventilator-induced diaphragmatic dysfunction, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 170, 626, 10.1164/rccm.200401-042OC

Testelmans, 2005, Intermittent spontaneous breathing protects the rat diaphragm from mechanical ventilation effects, Crit. Care Med., 33, 2804, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000191250.32988.A3

Reynolds, S.C., Meyyappan, R., Thakkar, V., Tran, B.D., Nolette, M.A., Sadarangani, G., Sandoval, R.A., Bruulsema, L., Hannigan, B., and Li, J.W. (2016). Mitigation of ventilator-induced diaphragm atrophy by transvenous phrenic nerve stimulation. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.

Laghi, 2014, Preventing ventilator-induced diaphragmatic dysfunction with phrenic nerve stimulation, Crit. Care Med., 42, 492, 10.1097/CCM.0000000000000003

Martin, 2014, Effect of intermittent phrenic nerve stimulation during cardiothoracic surgery on mitochondrial respiration in the human diaphragm, Crit. Care Med., 42, e152, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182a63fdf

Ahn, 2014, Phrenic nerve stimulation increases human diaphragm fiber force after cardiothoracic surgery, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 190, 837, 10.1164/rccm.201405-0993LE