Cultural Adaptations to Environmental Variability: An Evolutionary Account of East–West Differences
Tóm tắt
Much research has been conducted to document and sometimes to provide proximate explanations (e.g., Confucianism vs. Western philosophy) for East–West cultural differences. The ultimate evolutionary mechanisms underlying these cross-cultural differences have not been addressed. We propose in this review that East–West cultural differences (e.g., independent versus interdependent self construal; autonomy versus harmony in values; hierarchical versus egalitarian relationships) result from social learning and individual learning as primary means to adapt to the local environment. Historical and contemporary evidence from multiple sources is reviewed that indicates smaller extents of environmental variability in East Asia including China than in Europe and North America, favoring social learning in the East and individual learning in the West. Corresponding to these different adaptive strategies, East–West differences stem from learning styles that differ between copying and rote memorization, on the one hand, and critical thinking and innovative problem solving, on the other hand. These primary cultural differences are correlated with such personality attributes as conformity, compliance, and independence that serve to facilitate social or individual learning. This and other cross-cultural and educational psychological research is reviewed as evidence to support our evolutionary explanation of why Eastern and Western cultures differ in the ways in which they do.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Alexander, R. D. (1971). The search for an evolutionary philosophy of man. Proceedings. Royal Society of Victoria, 84, 99–120.
Alexander, R. D. (1979). Darwinism and human affairs. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
Alexander, R. D. (1989). Evolution of the human psyche. In P. Mellars & C. Stringer (Eds.), The human revolution: Behavioral and biological perspectives on the origins of modern humans (pp. 455–513). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Allen, R. C. (2000). Economic structure and agricultural productivity in Europe, 1300–1800. European Review of Economic History, 3, 1–25.
An, S., Kulm, G., & Wu, Z. (2004). The pedagogical content knowledge of middle school, mathematics teachers in China and the U.S. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 7, 145–172.
Ash, J. A., & Gallup, G. G., Jr. (2007). Paleoclimatic variation and brain expansion during human evolution. Human Nature, 18, 109–124.
Bell-Fialkoff, A. (2000). Migration, its role and significance. In A. Bell-Fialkoff (Ed.), The role of migration in the history of the Eurasia Steppe: Sedentary civilization vs. “Barbarian” and Nomad (pp. 275–285). New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Bickerton, D. (1990). Language and species. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Bond, M. H. (1986). The psychology of the Chinese people. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bond, M. H., Wan, K. C., Leung, K., & Giacalone, R. (1985). How are responses to verbal insults related to cultural collectivism and power distance? Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 16, 111–127.
Bond, R., & Smith, P. B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 111–137.
Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (1983). The cultural transmission of acquired variation: Effects on genetic fitness. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 100, 567–596.
Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (1985). Culture and the evolutionary process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (1988). An evolutionary model of social learning: The effects of spatial and temporal variation. In T. Zentall & B. G. Galef (Eds.), Social learning: A psychological and biological approaches (pp. 29–48). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (1995). Why does culture increase human adaptability? Ethology and Sociobiology, 16, 125–143.
Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (1996). Why culture is common, but cultural evolution is rare. Proceedings of the British Academy, 88, 77–93.
Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (2005). The origin and evolution of cultures. New York: Oxford University Press.
Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (2007). Culture, adaptation and innateness. In P. Carruthers, S. Stich, & S. Laurence (Eds.), The innate mind: Culture and cognition (pp. 23–38). New York: Oxford University Press.
Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (2009). Voting with your feet: Payoff biased migration and the evolution of group beneficial behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 257, 331–339.
Brakefield, P. M., & Wijngaarden, P. J. (2003). Phenotypic plasticity. In B. K. Hall & W. M. Olson (Eds.), Keywords and concepts in evolutionary developmental biology (pp. 288–297). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Broadberry, S., & Gupta, B. (2006). The early modern great divergence: Wages, prices and economic development in Europe and Asia, 1500–1800. Economic History Review LIX, 1, 2–31.
Brockner, J., Ackerman, G., Greenberg, J., Gelfand, M. J., Francesco, A. M., Chen, Z. X., et al. (2001). Culture and procedural justice: The influence of power distance on reactions to voice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 300–315.
Brown, W. M., & Moore, C. (2000). Is prospective altruist-detection an evolved solution to the adaptive problem of subtle cheating in cooperative ventures? Supportive evidence using the Wason selection task. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21, 25–37.
Buttery, A. E., & Leung, T. K. P. (1998). The difference between Chinese and Western negotiations. European Journal of Marketing, 32, 374–389.
Cai, J. (1995). A cognitive analysis of U.S. and Chinese students’ mathematical performance on tasks involving computation, simple problem solving, and complex problem solving. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Monograph 7, Journal for Research in Mathematics Education.
Cai, J. (2000). Mathematical thinking involved in U.S. and Chinese students’ solving of process-constrained and process-open problems. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 2, 309–340.
Cai, J. (2005). U.S. and Chinese teachers’ constructing, knowing, and evaluating representations to teach mathematics. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 7, 135–169.
Cai, J., & Cifarelli, V. (2004). Thinking mathematically by Chinese learners: A cross-national comparative perspective. In L. Fan, N. Wong, J. Cai, & S. Li (Eds.), How Chinese learn mathematics: Perspectives from insiders (pp. 71–106). Singapore: World Scientific.
Caldini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. (2004). Social influence: Compliance and conformity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 591–621.
Cashdan, E. (2001). Ethnic diversity and its environmental determinants: Effects of climate, pathogens, and habitat diversity. American Anthropologist, 103, 968–991.
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., Menozzi, P., & Piazza, A. (1994). The history and geography of human genes. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Chan, D., & Chan, L. (1999). Implicit theories of creativity: Teachers’ perception of student characteristics in Hong Kong. Creativity Research Journal, 12, 185–195.
Chang, L. (2003). Variable effects of children’s aggression, social withdrawal, and prosocial leadership as functions of teacher beliefs and behaviors. Child Development, 74, 535–548.
Chang, L. (2004). The role of classrooms in contextualizing the relations of children’s social behaviors to peer acceptance. Developmental Psychology, 40, 691–702.
Chan, S. (1999). The Chinese learner—a question of style. Education and Training, 41, 294–303.
Chen, S. X., Chan, W., Bond, M. H., & Stewart, S. M. (2006). The effects of self-efficacy and relationship harmony on depression across cultures: Applying level-oriented and structure-oriented analyses. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 37, 643–658.
Chen, X., Rubin, K. H., Liu, M., Chen, H., Wang, L., Li, D., et al. (2003). Compliance in Chinese and Canadian toddlers: A cross-cultural study. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 428–436.
Cheung, F. M., Cheung, S. F., Leung, K., Ward, C., & Leong, F. (2003). The english version of the Chinese personality assessment inventory. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34, 433–452.
Chu, C. (1931). Climatic changes during historic time in China. Gerlands Beiträge Zur Geophysik, 32, 29–37.
Chung, H., & Gale, J. (2006). Comparing self-differentiation and psychological well-being between Korean and European American Students. Contemporary Family Therapy, 28, 367–381.
Cosmides, L. (1989). The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task. Cognition, 31, 187–276.
Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (1989). Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. Part II. Case study: A computational theory of social exchange. Ethology & Sociobiology, 10, 51–97.
Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (1992). Cognitive adaptations for social exchange. In J. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 163–228). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2001). Unraveling the enigma of human intelligence: Evolutionary psychology and the multimodular mind. In R. J. Sternberg & J. C. Kaufman (Eds.), The evolution of intelligence (pp. 145–198). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Dahlin, B., & Watkins, D. (2000). The role of repetition in the processes of memorizing and understanding: A comparison of the views of German and Chinese secondary school students in Hong Kong. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 65–84.
Davis, L. (2002). Natural disasters (revised ed.). New York: Checkmark Books.
Dugatkin, L. A. (1996). Copying and mate choice. In C. M. Heyes & B. G. Galef Jr. (Eds.), Social learning in animals: The roots of culture (pp. 85–105). San Diego: Academic.
Dunbar, R. I. M. (1993). Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16, 681–735.
Dunbar, R. I. M. (1998). The social brain hypothesis. Evolutionary Anthropology, 6, 178–190.
Enard, W., Przeworski, M., Fisher, S. E., Lai, C. S., Wiebe, V., Kitano, T., et al. (2002). Molecular evolution of FOXP2, a gene involved in speech and language. Nature, 418, 869–872.
Epstein, S. (1994). Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious. The American Psychologist, 49, 709–724.
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2003). In two minds: Dual-process accounts of reasoning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 454–459.
Fincher, C. L., Thornhill, R., Murray, D. R., & Schaller, M. (2008). Pathogen prevalence predicts human cross-cultural variability in individualism / collectivism. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 275, 1279–1285.
Garraty, J. A., & Gay, P. (1972). A history of the world. The world to 1500 (Vol. 1). New York: Harper & Row.
Geary, D. C. (1994). Children’s mathematical development: Research and practical applications. Washington: American Psychological Association.
Geary, D. C. (2002). Principles of evolutionary educational psychology. Learning and individual differences, 12, 317–345.
Geary, D. C. (2005). The origin of mind: Evolution of brain, cognition, and general intelligence. Washington: American Psychological Association.
Geary, D. C., & Huffman, K. J. (2002). Brain and cognitive evolution: Forms of modularity and functions of mind. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 667–698.
Geary, D. C., Bow-Thomas, C. C., Liu, F., & Siegler, R. S. (1996). Development of arithmetical competencies in Chinese and American children: Influence of age, language, and schooling. Child Development, 67, 2022–2044.
Gochman, C. S., & Maoz, Z. (1984). Militarized interstate disputes, 1816–1976: Procedures, patterns, and insights. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 28, 585–615.
Gouveia, V. V., & Ros, M. (2000). The Hofstede and Schwartz models for classifying individualism at the cultural level: Their relation to macro-social and macro-economic variables. Psicothema, 12, 25–33.
Guernier, V., Hochberg, M. E., & Guégan, J.-F. (2004). Ecology drives the worldwide distribution of human diseases. Public Library of Science, Biology, 2, 740–746.
Henrich, J., & Boyd, J. (1998). The evolution of conformist transmission and the emergence of between-group differences. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 215–241.
Henrich, J., & Gil-White, F. (2001). The evolution of prestige: Freely conferred deference as a mechanism for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 165–196.
Hess, R. D., Chang, C.-M., & McDevitt, T. M. (1987). Cultural variations in family beliefs about children’s performance in mathematics: Comparisons among People’s Republic of China, Chinese-American, and Caucasian-American families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 179–188.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills: Sage.
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Holsti, K. J. (1991). Peace and war: Armed conflicts and international order, 1648–1989. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hu, X.-F. (2000). Effect of different feudal agriculture product ion structure on social transform in China and Western Europe. Journal of Hunan Educaitonal Institute, 18, 45–49.
Humphrey, N. K. (1976). The social function of intellect. In P. P. G. Bateson & R. A. Hinde (Eds.), Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans (pp. 303–318). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (1999). Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 349–366.
Jerison, H. J. (1973). Evolution of the brain and intelligence. New York: Academic.
Jiang, L. (2001). Household registration system and its characteristics in ancient china. Journal of North China University of Technology, 13, 88–92.
Kahneman, D. (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. The American Psychologist, 58, 697–720.
Kameda, T., & Nakanishi, D. (2003). Does social/cultural learning increase human adaptability? Rogers’ question revisited. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 242–260.
Kaplan, H., Hill, K., Lancaster, J., & Hurtado, A. M. (2000). A theory of human life history evolution: Diet, intelligence, and longevity. Evolutionary Anthropology, 9, 156–185.
Kim, H., & Markus, H. R. (1999). Deviance or uniqueness, harmony or conformity? A cultural analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 785–800.
Kim, H. S., & Drolet, A. (2009). Express your social self: Cultural differences in choice of brand-name versus generic products. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 1555–1566.
Koenigsberger, H. G. (1987). Medieval Europe 400−1500. London: Longman.
Laland, K. N., & Williams, K. (1997). Shoaling generates social learning of foraging information in guppies. Animal Behavior, 53, 1161–1169.
Lan, X., Ponitz, C., Miller, K., Li, S., Cortina, K., Perry, M., et al. (2009). Keeping their attention: Classroom practices associated with behavioral engagement in first grade mathematics classes in China and the United States. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24, 198–211.
Lefebvre, L., & Palameta, B. (1988). Mechanisms, ecology and population diffusion of socially-learned food-finding behavior in feral pigeons. In T. R. Zentall & B. G. Galef Jr. (Eds.), Social learning: Psychological and biological perspectives (pp. 141–164). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Li, J. (2003). U.S. and Chinese cultural beliefs about learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 258–267.
Loutre, M., Paillard, D., Vimeux, F., & Cortijo, E. (2004). Does mean annual insolation have the potential to change the climate? Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 221, 1–14.
Lu, H. J., & Chang, L. (2009). Kinship effect on subjective temporal distance of autobiographical memory. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 595–598.
Luterbacher, J., Dietrich, D., Xoplaki, E., Grosjean, M., & Wanner, H. (2004). European seasonal and annual temperature variability, trends, and extremes since 1500. Science, 303, 1499–1503.
Mann, L., Radford, M., Burnett, P., Ford, S., Bond, M., Leung, K., et al. (1998). Cross-cultural differences in self-reported decision-making style and confidence. International Journal of Psychology, 33, 325–335.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implication for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253.
Martinsons, M., & Martinsons, A. (1996). Conquering cultural constraints to cultivate Chinese management creativity and innovation. Journal of Management Development, 15, 18–35.
Marton, F., Wen, Q., & Nagle, A. (1996). Views on learning in different cultures: Comparing patterns in China and Uruguay. Anales de Psicología, 12, 123–132.
McElreath, R., Lubell, M., Richerson, P. J., Waring, T. M., Baum, W., Edsten, E., et al. (2005). Applying evolutionary models to the laboratory study of social learning. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26, 483–508.
McNeil, W. H. (1984). Human migration in historical perspective. Population and Development Review, 10, 1–18.
Mesoudi, A. (2008). An experimental simulation of the “copy-successful-individuals” cultural learning strategy: Adaptive landscapes, producer-scrounger dynamics and informational access costs. Evolution and Human Behavior, 29, 350–363.
Mesoudi, A. (2009). How cultural evolutionary theory can inform social psychology and vice versa. Psychological Review, 116, 929–952.
Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Gonzalez, E. J., & Chrostowski, S. J. (2004). TIMSS 2003 international mathematics report: Findings from IEA’s trends in international mathematics and science study at the fourth and eighth grades. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College.
Neiberg, M. S. (2001). Warfare in world history. In P. N. Stearns (Ed.), Themes in world history. London: Routledge.
Newell, S. (1999). The transfer of management knowledge to China: Building learning communities rather than translating Western textbooks? Education and Training, 41, 286–293.
Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108, 291–310.
Paine, L. (1997). Chinese teachers as mirrors of reform possibilities. In W. Cummings & P. Altbach (Eds.), The challenge of Eastern Asian education: Implications for America (pp. 65–86). Albany: State University of New York Press.
Peach, C. (1997). Postwar migration to Europe: Reflux, influx, refugee. Social Science Quarterly, 78, 269–283.
Perry, M. (2000). Explanations of mathematical concepts in Japanese, Chinese, and U.S. first- and fifth-grade classrooms. Cognition and Instruction, 18, 181–207.
Qi, C. (1985). Family agriculture and sovereign centralized-government. Yunan Social Science, 5(4), 36–42.
Richerson, P. J., & Boyd, R. (2001). Culture is part of human biology: Why the superorganic concept serves the human sciences badly. In S. Maasen & M. Winterhager (Eds.), Science studies: Probing the dynamics of scientific knowledge (pp. 145–178). Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag.
Richerson, P. J., & Boyd, R. (2008). Migration: An engine for social change. Nature, 456, 877.
Rickards, T., Fisher, D. & Fraser, B. (1996, November). Gender and cultural differences in teacher-student interpersonal behavior. Paper presented at the Conference of the Educational Research Association, Singapore and the Australian Association of Research in Education, Singapore.
Rogers, A. R. (1988). Does biology constrain culture? American Anthropologist, 90, 819–831.
Rogers, C. (1998). Motivational indicators in the United Kingdom and the People’s Republic of China. Educational Psychology, 18, 275–291.
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Cultural dimensions of values: Towards an understanding of national differences. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method and applications (pp. 85–119). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Schwartz, S. H. (1999). A theory of cultural values and some implications for work. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48, 23–47.
Schwenk, K., & Wagner, G. P. (2003). Constraint. In B. K. Hall & W. M. Olson (Eds.), Key words and concepts in evolutionary developmental biology (pp. 52–61). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Shi, Z., et al. (1961). Historical geography in China I. Taibei: Chinese Culture Publishing Committee.
Singelis, T. M., Bond, M. H., Sharkey, W. F., & Lai, C. S. Y. (1999). Unpackaging culture’s influence on self-esteem and embarrassability: The role of self-construals. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30, 315–341.
Singer, J. D., & Small, M. (1972). The wages of war 1816–1965: A statistical handbook. New York: Wiley.
Sloman, S. A. (1996). The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 3–22.
Stanovich, K. E. (1999). Who is rational? Studies of individual differences in reasoning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Stevens, G. C. (1989). The Latitudinal gradient in how geographical range: So many species coexist in the tropics. The American Naturalist, 133, 240–256.
Stevenson, H. W., & Stigler, J. W. (1992). The learning gap: Why our schools are failing and what we can learn from Japanese and Chinese education. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Stevenson, H. W., & Lee, S. (1995). The East Asian version of whole-class teaching. Educational Policy, 9, 152–168.
Stevenson, H. W., Stigler, J. W., Lee, S., Lucker, G. W., Kitamura, S., & Hsu, C. (1985). Cognitive performance and academic achievement of Japanese, Chinese, and American Children. Child Development, 56, 718–734.
Stringer, C., & McKie, R. (1996). African exodus: The origins of modern humanity. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC.
Suh, E., Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Triandis, H. C. (1998). The shifting basis of life satisfaction judgments across cultures: Emotions versus norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 482–493.
Taagepera, R. (1979). Size and duration of empires: Growth-decline curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D. Social Science History, 3, 115–138.
Tan, B. C. Y., Wei, K. K., Watson, R. T., Clapper, D. L., & McLean, E. R. (1998). Computer-mediated communication and majority influence: Assessing the impact in an individualistic and collectivistic culture. Management Science, 44, 1263–1278.
Tilly, C. (1990). Coercion, capital, and European states, AD 990–1990. Cambridge: Blackwell.
Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1988). The evolution of war and its cognitive foundations. Institute for Evolutionary Studies Technical Report #88–1.
Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1992). The psychological foundations of culture. In J. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 19–136). New York: Oxford University Press.
Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1995). Mapping the evolved functional organization of mind and brain. In M. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The cognitive neurosciences (pp. 1185–1197). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Trompenaars, E. (1993). Riding the waves of culture. London: Economist Books.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211, 453–458.
Underhill, P. A., Passarino, G., Lin, A. A., Shen, P., Lahr, M. M., Foley, R. A., et al. (2001). The phylogeography of Y chromosome binary haplotypes and the origins of modern human populations. Annals of Human Genetics, 65, 43–62.
United Nations (2006). International Migration 2006, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. United Nations Publication, No. E.06.XIII.6, March 2006.
Wang, X. T. (1996). Domain-specific rationality in human choices: Violations of utility axioms and social contexts. Cognition, 60, 31–63.
Wang, X. T. (2006). Emotions within reason: Resolving conflicts in risk preference. Cognition & Emotion, 20, 1132–1152.
Wang, X. T. (2008). Risk communication and risky choice: Ambiguity and ambivalence hypothesis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1128, 78–89.
Wang, X. T., & Xin, K. (2002, April). Social-organizational knowledge and managerial decision-making. Paper presented at the third European Conference on Organizational Knowledge, Learning and Capabilities, Athens, Greece.
Wang, S., Wen, X., Luo, Y., Dong, W., Zhao, Z., & Yang, B. (2007). The establishment of temperature series in China in recent Millennia (in Chinese). Scientific Report, 52, 958–964.
Watkins, D. (1996). Hong Kong secondary school learners: A developmental perspective. In D. Watkins and J. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong, Comparative Education Research Centre/Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. pp. 107–119
West-Eberhard, M. J. (2003). Developmental plasticity and evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wong, J. (2004). Are the learning styles of Asian international students culturally or contextually based? International Education Journal, 4, 154–166.
Woodrow, D., & Sham, S. (2001). Chinese pupils and their learning preferences. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 4, 377–394.
Xie, J. L., Roy, J. P., & Chen, Z. (2006). Cultural and individual differences in self-rating behavior: An extension and refinement of the cultural relativity hypothesis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27, 341–364.
Yang, K. (1998). The history of warring states (Addition version). Shanghai: Shanghai People Publishing House.
Zhang, D., & Dai, Z. (2004). The “two basics” mathematics teaching approach and the open ended problem solving in China. Research in Mathematical Education, 8, 123–144.
Zhang, X.-Q. (1991). Urbanization in China. Urban Studies, 28, 41–51.