Corrosion of Metallic Biomaterials: A Review

Materials - Tập 12 Số 3 - Trang 407
Noam Eliaz1
1Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 6997801, Israel

Tóm tắt

Metallic biomaterials are used in medical devices in humans more than any other family of materials. The corrosion resistance of an implant material affects its functionality and durability and is a prime factor governing biocompatibility. The fundamental paradigm of metallic biomaterials, except biodegradable metals, has been “the more corrosion resistant, the more biocompatible.” The body environment is harsh and raises several challenges with respect to corrosion control. In this invited review paper, the body environment is analysed in detail and the possible effects of the corrosion of different biomaterials on biocompatibility are discussed. Then, the kinetics of corrosion, passivity, its breakdown and regeneration in vivo are conferred. Next, the mostly used metallic biomaterials and their corrosion performance are reviewed. These biomaterials include stainless steels, cobalt-chromium alloys, titanium and its alloys, Nitinol shape memory alloy, dental amalgams, gold, metallic glasses and biodegradable metals. Then, the principles of implant failure, retrieval and failure analysis are highlighted, followed by description of the most common corrosion processes in vivo. Finally, approaches to control the corrosion of metallic biomaterials are highlighted.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Doherty, 1992, Consensus report of second conference on definitions in biomaterials, Biomaterial-Tissue Interfaces, Volume 10, 525

Ratner, B.D., Hoffman, A.S., Schoen, F.J., and Lemons, J.E. (2004). Biomaterials Science: An Introduction to Materials in Medicine, Academic Press. [2nd ed.].

Williams, D.F. (1987). Definitions in Biomaterials—Proceedings of a Consensus Conference of the European Society Biomaterials, Elsevier.

Bronzino, J.D., and Peterson, D.R. (2015). The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, CRC Press. [4th ed.].

Zierold, 1924, Reaction of bone to various metals, Arch. Surg., 9, 365, 10.1001/archsurg.1924.01120080133008

Eliaz, N. (2011). Electrochemical coating of medical implants. Applications of Electrochemistry in Biology and Medicine I, Springer Science+Business Media. (Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, No. 52).

Eliaz, N., and Metoki, N. (2017). Calcium phosphate bioceramics: A review of their history, structure, properties, coating technologies and biomedical applications. Materials, 10.

Sridhar, 2002, Electrophoretic deposition of hydroxyapatite coatings and corrosion aspects of metallic implants, Corros. Rev., 20, 255, 10.1515/CORRREV.2002.20.4-5.255

Eliaz, 2005, Electrochemical and electrophoretic deposition of hydroxyapatite for orthopaedic applications, Surf. Eng., 21, 238, 10.1179/174329405X50091

Wang, 2006, Early bone apposition in vivo on plasma-sprayed and electrochemically deposited hydroxyapatite coatings on titanium alloy, Biomaterials, 27, 4192, 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2006.03.034

Eliaz, 2007, Electrochemical processes of nucleation and growth of hydroxyapatite on titanium supported by real-time electrochemical atomic force microscopy, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A, 80, 621, 10.1002/jbm.a.30944

Eliaz, 2008, Electrocrystallization of hydroxyapatite and its dependence on solution conditions, Cryst. Gr. Des., 8, 3965, 10.1021/cg800016h

Eliaz, 2008, Electrocrystallization of calcium phosphates, Isr. J. Chem., 48, 159, 10.1560/IJC.48.3-4.159

Eliaz, 2009, Electrochemical processes of nucleation and growth of calcium phosphate on titanium supported by real-time quartz crystal microbalance measurements and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A, 89, 270, 10.1002/jbm.a.32129

Lakstein, 2009, Enhanced osseointegration of grit-blasted, NaOH-treated and electrochemically hydroxyapatite-coated Ti–6Al–4V implants in rabbits, Acta Biomater., 5, 2258, 10.1016/j.actbio.2009.01.033

Eliaz, 2009, The effect of surface treatment on the surface texture and contact angle of electrochemically deposited hydroxyapatite coating and on its interaction with bone-forming cells, Acta Biomater., 5, 3178, 10.1016/j.actbio.2009.04.005

Karlinsey, R.L. (2009). Comparison of the microstructures of electrochemically deposited hydroxyapatite and plasma-sprayed hydroxyapatite coatings. Recent Developments in Advanced Medical and Dental Materials Using Electrochemical Methodologies, Research Signpost.

Wang, 2011, The nanostructure of an electrochemically deposited hydroxyapatite coating, Mater. Lett., 65, 2455, 10.1016/j.matlet.2011.05.016

Eliaz, 2011, The effect of surface treatments on the adhesion of electrochemically deposited hydroxyapatite coating to titanium and on its interaction with cells and bacteria, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med., 22, 1741, 10.1007/s10856-011-4355-y

Eliaz, N. (2011). Bioactive metals prepared by surface modification: Preparation and properties. Applications of Electrochemistry in Biology and Medicine I, Springer Science+Business Media. (Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, No. 52).

Metoki, 2014, Hydroxyapatite coatings electrodeposited at near-physiological conditions, Mater. Lett., 119, 24, 10.1016/j.matlet.2013.12.091

Zanin, 2015, Assisted deposition of nano-hydroxyapatite onto exfoliated carbon nanotube oxide scaffolds, Nanoscale, 7, 10218, 10.1039/C4NR07317G

Metoki, 2016, The effect of decorating titanium with different self-assembled monolayers on the electrodeposition of calcium phosphate, Cryst. Gr. Des., 16, 2756, 10.1021/acs.cgd.6b00057

Metoki, 2016, Electrodeposition and biomineralization of nano-β-tricalcium phosphate on graphenated carbon nanotubes, Surf. Coat. Technol., 297, 51, 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2016.04.035

Metoki, 2016, Electro-assisted deposition of calcium phosphate on self-assembled monolayers, Electrochim. Acta, 206, 400, 10.1016/j.electacta.2016.04.143

Zhang, 2016, Hydroxyapatite/mesoporous graphene/single-walled carbon nanotubes freestanding flexible hybrid membranes for regenerative medicine, Adv. Funct. Mater., 26, 7965, 10.1002/adfm.201602088

Geuli, 2016, Electrochemically driven hydroxyapatite nanoparticles coating of medical implants, Adv. Funct. Mater., 26, 8003, 10.1002/adfm.201603575

Thomas, 2016, In situ potentiostatic deposition of calcium phosphate with gentamicin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles on titanium alloy surfaces, Electrochim. Acta, 222, 355, 10.1016/j.electacta.2016.10.186

Thomas, 2017, Quickly manufactured, drug eluting, calcium phosphate composite coating, Chem. Sel., 2, 753

Geuli, 2017, Synthesis, coating and drug-release of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles loaded with antibiotics, J. Mater. Chem. B, 5, 7819, 10.1039/C7TB02105D

Mandler, D., Eliaz, N., Geuli, O., and Metoki, N. (2017). Coatings of Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles. (Application PCT/IL2017/050964), PCT Patent.

Metoki, 2018, Atomically resolved calcium phosphate coating on a gold substrate, Nanoscale, 10, 8451, 10.1039/C8NR00372F

Kamachi Mudali, U., and Raj, B. (2008). Biomaterials and corrosion. Corrosion Science and Technology: Mechanism, Mitigation and Monitoring, Narosa Publishing House. Chapter 12.

Eliaz, N. (2012). Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer.

Eliaz, N., and Kamachi Mudali, U. (2003). Special Issue: Biomaterials Corrosion. Corros. Rev., 2, ((2-3)), Available online: https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/corrrev.2003.21.2-3/issue-files/corrrev.2003.21.2-3.xml.

Blackwood, 2003, Biomaterials: Past successes and future problems, Corros. Rev., 21, 97, 10.1515/CORRREV.2003.21.2-3.97

Sridhar, 2003, Failures of stainless steel orthopaedic devices—causes and remedies, Corros. Rev., 21, 231, 10.1515/CORRREV.2003.21.2-3.231

Virtanen, 2008, Corrosion of biomedical implant materials, Corros. Rev., 26, 147, 10.1515/corrrev.2008.147

Manivasagam, 2010, Biomedical implants: Corrosion and its prevention—A review, Recent Patents Corros. Sci., 2, 40, 10.2174/1877610801002010040

Eliaz, N. (2012). Medical implant corrosion: Electrochemistry at metallic biomaterial surfaces. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 1.

Eliaz, N. (2012). Degradation of titanium and its alloys. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 2.

Eliaz, N. (2012). Degradation of dental implants. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 3.

Eliaz, N. (2012). Biodegradable metals. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 5.

Black, J. (1992). Biological Performance of Materials—Fundamentals of Biocompatibility, Marcel Decker. [2nd ed.].

Pound, 2014, Corrosion behavior of metallic materials in biomedical applications. I. Ti and its alloys, Corros. Rev., 32, 1, 10.1515/corrrev-2014-0007

Eliaz, N., and Gileadi, E. (2019). Physical Electrochemistry: Fundamentals, Techniques, and Applications, Wiley-VCH. [2nd ed.].

Thibodeau, G.A., and Patton, K.T. (1999). Anatomy and Physiology, Mosby. [4th ed.].

Winter, 1974, Tissue reactions to metallic wear and corrosion products in human patients, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Symp., 5, 11, 10.1002/jbm.820080304

Laing, 1973, Compatibility of biomaterials, Orthop. Clin. North Am., 4, 249, 10.1016/S0030-5898(20)30792-6

Davis, J.E. (1991). Inflammatory cell response to bone implant surfaces. The Bone-Biomaterial Interface, University of Toronto Press.

Tengvall, 1992, Physico-chemical considerations of titanium as a biomaterial, Clin. Mater., 9, 115, 10.1016/0267-6605(92)90056-Y

Fraker, A.C., and Griffin, C.D. (1985). Corrosion and Degradation of Implant Materials, ASTM STP 859, ASTM.

Ciolac, 2000, Long-term in vitro study of titanium and some titanium alloys used in surgical implants, Rev. Chim., 51, 36

Zitter, 1992, Case histories on surgical implants and their causes, Werkstoffe Korrosion, 42, 455, 10.1002/maco.19910420904

(2017). Standard Test Method for Conducting Cyclic Potentiodynamic Polarization Measurements to Determine the Corrosion Susceptibility of Small Implant Devices, ASTM International. ASTM F2129–17b.

Morita, 1988, The corrosion fatigue properties of surgical implants in a living body, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 22, 529, 10.1002/jbm.820220608

Pourbaix, M. (1974). Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions, NACE. [2nd ed.].

Pourbaix, M. (1973). Lectures on Electrochemical Corrosion, Plenum Press.

Corbett, R.A. (2004). Laboratory Corrosion Testing of Medical Implants, Corrosion Testing Laboratories, Inc.

Syrett, B.C., and Acharya, A. (1979). Corrosion resistance of titanium surgical implant alloys, a review. Corrosion and degradation of implant materials. Corrosion and Degradation of Implant Materials, ASTM STP 684, ASTM.

Hughes, 1978, The corrosion fatigue properties of surgical implant materials. Third progress report—May 1973, Eng. Med., 7, 135, 10.1243/EMED_JOUR_1978_007_036_02

Traisnel, 1990, Corrosion of surgical implants, Clin. Mater., 5, 309, 10.1016/0267-6605(90)90030-Y

Fusayama, 1963, Corrosion of gold and amalgam placed in contact with each other, J. Dent. Res., 42, 1183, 10.1177/00220345630420051301

Kidd, 1994, Update on the appropriate uses of fluoride, Dent. Update, 21, 366

1982, Allergy and corrosion of dental materials in patients with oral lichen planus, Int. J. Oral Surg., 12, 1

Banoczy, 1979, Clinical and histologic studies on electrogalvanically induced oral white lesions, Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol., 48, 319, 10.1016/0030-4220(79)90031-8

Hiromoto, 2006, Corrosion of implant metals in the presence of cells, Corros. Rev., 24, 323, 10.1515/CORRREV.2006.24.5-6.323

Hallab, 2003, Orthopedic implant fretting corrosion, Corros. Rev., 21, 183, 10.1515/CORRREV.2003.21.2-3.183

Eliaz, N. (2012). Hypersensitivity to implant debris. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 12.

Francis, P.E., and Lee, T.S. (1988). Synthetic environments for testing of metallic biomaterials. The Use of Synthetic Environments for Corrosion Testing, ASTM STP 970, ASTM.

Anderson, 2008, Foreign body reaction to biomaterials, Semin. Immunol., 20, 86, 10.1016/j.smim.2007.11.004

Mears, D.C. (1979). Materials and Orthopaedic Surgery, Williams & Wilkins. Chapter 1.

Bhat, S.V. (2002). Biomaterials, Narosa Publishing House.

Hastings, G., Black, J., and Murphy, W. (2016). Handbook of Biomaterial Properties, Springer Science+Business Media. [2nd ed.].

Ryhänen, J. (1999). Biocompatibility Evaluation of Nickel-Titanium Shape Memory Metal Alloy. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Oulu]. Available online: http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514252217/html/index.html.

Urban, 1994, Migration of corrosion products from modular hip prostheses. Particle microanalysis and histopathological findings, J. Bone Joint Surg. Am., 76, 1345, 10.2106/00004623-199409000-00009

Eliaz, N. (2012). Biological safety evaluation of polymers. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 17.

Eliaz, N. (2012). Biological response to and toxicity of nanoscale implant materials. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 18.

Aksakal, 2004, Metallurgical failure analysis of various implant materials used in orthopedic applications, J. Fail. Anal. Prev., 4, 17, 10.1007/s11668-996-0007-9

Totten, G.E. (2017). Wear particle analysis. ASM Handbook, Vol. 18: Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology, ASM International.

Eliaz, N. (2012). Fundamentals of tribology and the use of ferrography and bio-ferrography for monitoring the degradation of natural and artificial joints. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 10.

Hunter, 1982, Ferrography: A new method for isolation of particles from biological fluids, J. Clin. Pathol., 35, 689, 10.1136/jcp.35.6.689

Graham, 1982, Separation of lanthanide binding cells, IEEE Trans. Magn., 18, 1523, 10.1109/TMAG.1982.1062071

Russell, 1983, The concentration and separation of bacteria and cells by ferrography, Wear, 90, 159, 10.1016/0043-1648(83)90054-6

Jones, W.R. (1983). Wear Particle Analysis Using the Ferrograph, NASA Technical Memorandum 83422.

Zborowski, 1991, Modification of ferrography method for analysis of lymphocytes and bacteria, Wear, 142, 135, 10.1016/0043-1648(91)90157-P

Mears, 1978, Ferrography: Its application to the study of human joint wear, Wear, 50, 115, 10.1016/0043-1648(78)90250-8

Evans, 1981, The wear particles of synovial fluid: Their ferrographic analysis and pathophysiological significance, Bull. Prosthet. Res., 10, 13

Evans, 1981, A preliminary ferrographic survey of the wear particles in human synovial fluid, Arthritis Rheum., 24, 912, 10.1002/art.1780240708

Evans, 1982, Ferrographic analysis of wear in human joints: Evaluation by comparison with arthroscopic examination of symptomatic knees, J. Bone Joint Surg., 64B, 572, 10.1302/0301-620X.64B5.7142265

Evans, 1983, Application of ferrography to the study of wear and arthritis in human joints, Wear, 90, 281, 10.1016/0043-1648(83)90186-2

Mills, 1983, A preliminary use of ferrography in the study of arthritic diseases, Wear, 90, 107, 10.1016/0043-1648(83)90050-9

Podsiadlo, 1997, Numerical analysis of wear particles from non-arthritic and osteoarthritic human knee joints, Wear, 210, 318, 10.1016/S0043-1648(97)00061-6

Stachowiak, G.W., and Podsiadlo, P. (1997). Analysis of wear particle boundaries found in sheep knee joints during in vitro wear tests without muscle compensation. J. Biomech., 415–419.

Kuster, 1998, Shape of wear particles found in human knee joints and their relationship to osteoarthritis, Br. J. Rheumatol., 37, 978, 10.1093/rheumatology/37.9.978

Graindorge, 2000, Changes occurring in the surface morphology of articular cartilage during wear, Wear, 241, 143, 10.1016/S0043-1648(00)00386-0

Mears, 1978, Ferrographic analysis of wear particles in arthroplastic joints, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 12, 867, 10.1002/jbm.820120609

Zhang, 1999, Bacterial tracking using ferrographic separation, Environ. Sci. Technol., 33, 2456, 10.1021/es990059+

Zhang, 1999, Rapid selective ferrographic enumeration of bacteria, J. Magn. Magn. Mater., 194, 267, 10.1016/S0304-8853(98)00582-4

Johnson, 2001, Ferrographic tracking of bacterial transport in the field at the Narrow Channel Focus Area, Oyster, VA, Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 182, 10.1021/es001170e

Johnson, 2001, Evidence for detachment of indigenous bacteria from aquifer sediment in response to arrival of injected bacteria, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 67, 4908, 10.1128/AEM.67.10.4908-4913.2001

Fuller, 2001, Field-scale evaluation of CFDA/SE staining coupled with multiple detection methods for assessing the transport of bacteria in situ, FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., 37, 55, 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2001.tb00853.x

DeFlaun, 2001, Comparison of methods for monitoring bacterial transport in the subsurface, J. Microbiol. Methods, 47, 219, 10.1016/S0167-7012(01)00307-4

Zhang, 2001, Extended tailing of bacteria following breakthrough at the Narrow Channel Focus Area, Oyster, Virginia, Water Resour. Res., 37, 2687, 10.1029/2000WR000151

Johnson, 2003, Tracking of injected and resident (previously injected) bacterial cells in groundwater using ferrographic capture, Microbiol. Methods, 54, 153, 10.1016/S0167-7012(03)00016-2

Drake, 2005, Potential invasion of microorganisms and pathogens via ‘Interior Hull Fouling’: Biofilms inside ballast water tanks, Biol. Invasions, 7, 969, 10.1007/s10530-004-3001-8

Ishay, 2008, Gravity orientation in social wasp comb cells (Vespinae) and the possible role of embedded minerals, Naturwissenschaften, 95, 333, 10.1007/s00114-007-0334-z

Parkansky, 2008, Magnetic properties of carbon nano-particles produced by a pulsed arc submerged in ethanol, Carbon, 46, 215, 10.1016/j.carbon.2007.11.008

Levi, 2015, Isolating epideral growth factor receptor overexpressing carcinoma cells from human whole blood by bio-ferrography, Cytometry Part B Clin. Cytometry, 88, 136, 10.1002/cytob.21212

Levi, 2015, Optimization of EGFR high positive cell isolation procedure by design of experiments methodology, Cytometry Part B Clin. Cytometry, 88, 338, 10.1002/cyto.b.21246

Svetlizky, 2019, Mechanical properties of bio-ferrography isolated cancerous cells studied by atomic force microscopy, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater., 91, 345, 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.12.039

Fang, 1999, Detection of rare MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells from mixture of human peripheral leukocytes by magnetic deposition analysis, Cytometry, 36, 294, 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0320(19990801)36:4<294::AID-CYTO3>3.0.CO;2-C

Turpen, 2000, Isolation of cells using bioferrography, Cytometry, 42, 324

Mendel, 2010, Magnetic isolation of particles suspended in synovial fluid for diagnostics of natural joint chondropathies, Acta Biomater., 6, 4430, 10.1016/j.actbio.2010.06.003

Hakshur, 2011, The effect of hyaluronan injections into human knees on the number of bone and cartilage war particles captured by bio-ferrography, Acta Biomater., 7, 848, 10.1016/j.actbio.2010.08.030

Meyer, 2006, Bio-ferrography to capture and separate polyethylene wear debris from hip simulator fluid and compared with conventional filter method, J. Tribol., 128, 436, 10.1115/1.2162554

Elsner, 2010, Wear rate evaluation of a novel polycarbonate-urethane cushion form bearing for artificial hip joints, Acta Biomater., 6, 4698, 10.1016/j.actbio.2010.07.011

Elsner, 2011, Long-term evaluation of a compliant cushion form acetabular bearing for hip joint replacement: A 20 million cycles wear simulation, J. Orthop. Res., 29, 1859, 10.1002/jor.21471

Sonntag, R., and Kretzer, J.P. (2016). The use of polyurethanes in joint replacement. Materials for Joint Arthroplasty: Biotribology of Potential Bearings, Imperial College Press.

Ifergane, 2001, The effect of manufacturing processes on the fatigue lifetime of aeronautical bolts, Eng. Fail. Anal., 8, 227, 10.1016/S1350-6307(00)00013-3

(2014). Standard Test Method for Conducting Potentiodynamic Polarization Resistance Measurements, ASTM International. ASTM G59–97(2014).

(2015). Standard Practice for Calculation of Corrosion Rates and Related Information from Electrochemical Measurements, ASTM International. ASTM G102–89(2015).

(2014). Standard Reference Test Method for Making Potentiodynamic Anodic Polarization Measurements, ASTM International. ASTM G5–14.

(2018). Standard Test Method for Conducting Cyclic Potentiodynamic Polarization Measurements for Localized Corrosion Susceptibility of Iron-, Nickel-, or Cobalt-Based Alloys, ASTM International. ASTM G61–86(2018).

Greener, E.H., Harcourt, J.K., and Lautenschlager, E.P. (1972). Materials Science in Dentistry, Williams & Wilkins.

Revie, R., and Uhlig, H.H. (2008). Corrosion and Corrosion Control: An Introduction to Corrosion Science and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons. [4th ed.].

Hanawa, 2003, Reconstruction and regeneration of surface oxide film on metallic materials in biological environments, Corros. Rev., 21, 161, 10.1515/CORRREV.2003.21.2-3.161

Ulu, 2014, Electrosynthesis of ferrate (VI) ion using high purity iron electrodes: Optimization of influencing parameters on the process and investigating its stability, Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 9, 3099, 10.1016/S1452-3981(23)07995-6

Wulfsberg, G. (2000). Inorganic Chemistry, University Science Books.

Stewart, 2018, Degradation of ferrate species produced electrochemically for use in drinking water treatment applications, Can. J. Chem. Eng., 96, 1045, 10.1002/cjce.23073

(2013). Standard Specification for Wrought 18Chromium-14Nickel-2.5Molybdenum Stainless Steel Bar and Wire for Surgical Implants (UNS S31673), ASTM. ASTM F138–13a.

(2012). Standard Specification for Wrought 18Chromium-14Nickel-2.5Molybdenum Stainless Steel Sheet and Strip for Surgical Implants (UNS S31673), ASTM. ASTM F139–12.

(2012). Standard Specification for Wrought Stainless Steels for Surgical Instruments, ASTM. ASTM F899–12b.

(2013). Standard Specification for Wrought Nitrogen Strengthened 21Chromium-10Nickel-3Manganese-2.5Molybdenum Stainless Steel Alloy Bar for Surgical Implants (UNS S31675), ASTM. ASTM F1586–13e1.

(2016). Implants for Surgery—Metallic Materials—Part 1: Wrought Stainless Steel, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5832-1.

(2018). Standard Test Method for Corrosion of Surgical Instruments, ASTM. ASTM F1089–18.

Venugopalan, R., and Gaydon, J. (2001). A Review of Corrosion Behaviour of Surgical Implant Alloys, Perkin Elmer Instruments. Technical Review Note 99–01.

Berberich, 1989, Antibiotic-metal interactions in saline medium, Biomaterials, 10, 136, 10.1016/0142-9612(89)90048-3

Shih, 2000, Increased corrosion resistance of stent materials by converting current surface film of polycrystalline oxide into amorphous oxide, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 52, 323, 10.1002/1097-4636(200011)52:2<323::AID-JBM11>3.0.CO;2-Z

Sutow, 1985, In vitro crevice corrosion behaviour of implant materials, J. Dent. Res., 64, 842, 10.1177/00220345850640051201

Bundy, 1986, The influence of static stress on the corrosion behaviour of 316L stainless steel in Ringer’s solution, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 20, 493, 10.1002/jbm.820200406

Brown, 1981, Fretting corrosion in saline and serum, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 15, 479, 10.1002/jbm.820150404

Williams, 1988, Electrochemical studies on the influence of proteins on the corrosion of implant alloys, Biomaterials, 9, 181, 10.1016/0142-9612(88)90119-6

Stewart, 1992, The initiation of pitting corrosion on austenitic stainless steel: On the role and importance of sulphide inclusions, Corros. Sci., 33, 457, 10.1016/0010-938X(92)90074-D

Pound, 2014, Corrosion behavior of metallic materials in biomedical applications. II. Stainless steels and Co-Cr alloys, Corros. Rev., 32, 21, 10.1515/corrrev-2014-0008

Pan, 2000, Electrochemical study of resistance to localized corrosion of stainless steels for biomaterial applications, J. Electrochem. Soc., 147, 1021, 10.1149/1.1393307

(2016). Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service, ASTM. ASTM A268/A268M-10(2016).

(2017). Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service, ASTM. ASTM A789/A789M-17a.

(2017). Standard Specification for Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels and for General Applications, ASTM. ASTM A240/A240M-17.

Dayal, 2000, Influence of nitrogen addition on the crevice corrosion resistance of nitrogen-bearing austenitic stainless steels, J. Mater. Sci., 35, 1799, 10.1023/A:1004740905317

Yang, 2010, Nickel-free austenitic stainless steels for medical applications, Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater., 11, 014105, 10.1088/1468-6996/11/1/014105

(2012). Standard Specification for Wrought, Nitrogen Strengthened 23Manganese-21Chromium-1Molybdenum Low-Nickel Stainless Steel Alloy Bar and Wire for Surgical Implants (UNS S29108), ASTM. ASTM F2229-12.

(2012). Standard Specification for Cobalt-28 Chromium-6 Molybdenum Alloy Castings and Casting Alloy for Surgical Implants (UNS R30075), ASTM. ASTM F75-12.

(2014). Standard Specification for Wrought Cobalt-20Chromium-15Tungsten-10Nickel Alloy for Surgical Implant Applications (UNS R30605), ASTM. ASTM F90-14.

(2013). Standard Specification for Wrought 35Cobalt-35Nickel-20Chromium-10Molybdenum Alloy for Surgical Implant Applications (UNS R30035), ASTM. ASTM F562-13.

(2011). Standard Specification for Cobalt-28Chromium-6Molybdenum Alloy Forgings for Surgical Implants (UNS R31537, R31538, R31539), ASTM. ASTM F799-11.

(2011). Standard Specification for Wrought Cobalt-28Chromium-6Molybdenum Alloys for Surgical Implants (UNS R31537, UNS R31538, and UNS R31539), ASTM. ASTM F1537-11.

(2016). Standard Specification for Wrought 40Cobalt-20Chromium-16Iron-15Nickel-7Molybdenum Alloy Wire, Strip, and Strip Bar for Surgical Implant Applications (UNS R30003 and UNS R30008), ASTM. ASTM F1058-16.

(2014). Implants for Surgery—Metallic Materials—Part 4: Cobalt-Chromium-Molybdenum Casting Alloy, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5832-4:2014(en).

(2005). Implants for Surgery—Metallic Materials—Part 5: Wrought Cobalt-Chromium-Tungsten-Nickel Alloy, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5832-5:2005.

(1997). Implants for Surgery—Metallic Materials—Part 6: Wrought Cobalt-Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloy, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5832-6:1997.

(2016). Implants for Surgery—Metallic Materials—Part 7: Forgeable and Cold-Formed Cobalt-Chromium-Nickel-Molybdenum-Iron Alloy, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5832-7:2016.

(1997). Implants for Surgery—Metallic Materials—Part 8: Wrought Cobalt-Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum- Tungsten-Iron Alloy, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5832-8:1997.

(2007). Implants for Surgery—Metallic Materials—Part 12: Wrought Cobalt-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloy, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5832-12:2007.

Brunette, D.M., Tengvall, P., Textor, M., and Thomsen, P. (2001). Titanium in Medicine, Springer.

(2017). Standard Specification for Unalloyed Titanium, for Surgical Implant Applications (UNS R50250, UNS R50400, UNS R50550, UNS R50700), ASTM. ASTM F67-13(2017).

(2013). Standard Specification for Wrought Titanium-6Aluminum-4Vanadium ELI (Extra Low Interstitial) Alloy for Surgical Implant Applications (UNS R56401), ASTM. ASTM F136-13.

(2014). Standard Specification for Wrought Titanium-6Aluminum-4Vanadium Alloy for Surgical Implant Applications (UNS R56400), ASTM. ASTM F1472-14.

(2013). Standard Specification for Wrought Titanium-13Niobium-13Zirconium Alloy for Surgical Implant Applications (UNS R58130), ASTM. ASTM F1713-08(2013).

(2016). Standard Specification for Wrought Titanium-6Aluminum-7Niobium Alloy for Surgical Implant Applications (UNS R56700), ASTM. ASTM F1295-16.

(2013). Standard Specification for Wrought Titanium–12 Molybdenum–6 Zirconium–2 Iron Alloy for Surgical Implant (UNS R58120), ASTM. ASTM F1813-13.

(2012). Standard Specification for Titanium and Titanium-6 Aluminum-4 Vanadium Alloy Powders for Coatings of Surgical Implants, ASTM. ASTM F1580-12.

(2018). Implants for Surgery—Metallic Materials—Part 2: Unalloyed Titanium, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5832-2:2018.

(2016). Implants for Surgery—Metallic Materials—Part 3: Wrought Titanium 6-Aluminium 4-Vanadium Alloy, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5832-3:2016.

(1996). Implants for Surgery—Metallic Materials—Part 10: Wrought Titanium 5-Aluminium 2,5-Iron Alloy, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5832-10:1996.

(2014). Implants for Surgery—Metallic Materials—Part 11: Wrought Titanium 6-Aluminium 7-Niobium Alloy, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5832-11:2014.

Manivasagam, 2003, Corrosion and microstructural aspects of titanium and its alloys as orthopaedic devices, Corros. Rev., 21, 125, 10.1515/CORRREV.2003.21.2-3.125

Barbosa, 2000, Microstructure and mechanical behavior of the isothermally forged Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy, J. Mater. Des. Appl., 214, 23

Szymczyk, P., Ziółkowski, G., Junka, A., and Chlebus, E. (2018). Application of Ti6Al7Nb alloy for the manufacture of biomechanical functional structures (BFS) for custom-made bone implants. Materials, 11.

Sittig, 1999, The implant material, Ti6Al7Nb: Surface microstructure, composition and properties, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med., 10, 191, 10.1023/A:1008997726370

Dilea, 2013, Comparison between corrosion behaviour of implant alloys Ti6Al7Nb and Ti6Al4Zr in artificial saliva, Mater. Corros., 64, 493, 10.1002/maco.201206526

Oliveira, 1998, Preparation and characterization of Ti-Al-Nb alloys for orthopedic implants, Braz. J. Chem. Eng., 15, 326, 10.1590/S0104-66321998000400002

Marcu, 2014, Selective laser melting of Ti6Al7Nb with hydroxyapatite addition, Rapid Prototyp. J., 20, 301, 10.1108/RPJ-09-2012-0083

Bhola, 2011, Corrosion in titanium dental implants/prostheses—A review, Trends Biomater. Artif. Organs, 25, 34

Gurappa, 2002, Characterization of different materials for corrosion resistance under simulated body fluid conditions, Mater. Character., 49, 73, 10.1016/S1044-5803(02)00320-0

2011, Pourbaix diagrams for titanium in concentrated aqueous lithium bromide solutions at 25 °C, Corros. Sci., 53, 1440, 10.1016/j.corsci.2011.01.013

Hong, 2001, Corrosion behavior of advanced Ti-based alloys made by three-dimensional printing (3DP™) for biomedical applications, Corros. Sci., 43, 1781, 10.1016/S0010-938X(00)00181-5

Revie, R.W. (2000). Titanium and titanium alloys. Uhlig’s Corrosion Handbook, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.].

Brown, S.A., and Lemons, J. (1996). Titanium oxide fracture and repassivation: The effect of potential, pH and aeration. Medical Applications of Titanium and its Alloys: The Materials and Biological Issues, ASTM. ASTM STP 1272.

Bearinger, J.P. (2000). The Electrochemistry of Titanium/Titanium Oxide in the Biological Environment. [Ph.D. Thesis, Northwestern University].

Bearinger, 2003, In situ imaging and impedance measurements of titanium surfaces using AFM and SPIS, Biomaterials, 24, 1837, 10.1016/S0142-9612(02)00547-1

Eliaz, N. (2012). In vivo aging and corrosion aspects of dental implants. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 4.

Trillo, 2001, Evaluation of mechanical and corrosion biocompatibility of TiTa alloys, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med., 12, 283, 10.1023/A:1011210101895

Khan, 1996, In vitro corrosion and wear of titanium alloys in the biological environment, Biomaterials, 17, 2117, 10.1016/0142-9612(96)00029-4

Hong, 2001, A new Ti-5Ag alloy for customized prostheses by three-dimensional printing (3DP™), J. Dent. Res., 80, 860, 10.1177/00220345010800030301

Mallapragada, S., Korsmeyer, R., Mathiowitz, E., Narasimhan, B., and Tracy, M. (2001). Design and characterization of new Ti-Ag and Ti-Ag-Sn alloys for cranio-maxillo-facial prostheses made by three-dimensional printing. Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. Vol. 662: Biomaterials for Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering, MRS.

Nakagawa, 2001, Corrosion behaviour of pure titanium alloys in fluoride-containing solutions, Dent. Mater. J., 20, 167, 10.4012/dmj.20.305

Conroy, 2001, Electrochemical studies on the stability and corrosion resistance of titanium-based implant materials, Biomaterials, 22, 1531, 10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00309-4

Grosgogeat, 1999, Ti/Ti–6Al–4V implants and dental alloys by electrochemical techniques and auger spectrometry, Biomaterials, 20, 933, 10.1016/S0142-9612(98)00248-8

Rabkin, 2000, Nitinol properties affecting uses in interventional radiology, J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol., 11, 343, 10.1016/S1051-0443(07)61428-6

Shabalovskaya, 2002, Surface, corrosion and biocompatibility aspects of Nitinol as an implant material, Biomed. Mater. Eng., 12, 69

Pogrebnjak, 2013, Shape memory effect and superelasticity of titanium nickelide alloys implanted with high ion doses, Russ. Chem. Rev., 82, 1135, 10.1070/RC2013v082n12ABEH004344

Seo, 2015, Pilot study for investigating the cyclic behavior of slit damper systems with recentering shape memory alloy (SMA) bending bars used for seismic restrainers, Appl. Sci., 5, 187, 10.3390/app5030187

Superelasticity and Shape Memory Alloys (2018, August 24). University of Cambridge. Available online: https://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/superelasticity/index.php.

Wadood, A. (2016). Brief overview on Nitinol as biomaterial. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng., 4173138.

Duerig, 1999, An overview of nitinol medical applications, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 273–275, 149, 10.1016/S0921-5093(99)00294-4

(2015). Standard Terminology for Nickel-Titanium Shape Memory Alloys, ASTM. ASTM F2005-05(2015).

(2012). Standard Specification for Wrought Nickel-Titanium Shape Memory Alloys for Medical Devices and Surgical Implants, ASTM. ASTM F2063-12.

Bose, 2009, Fabrication of porous NiTi shape memory alloy structures using laser engineered net shaping, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B, 89, 481

Bose, 2007, Laser processing of net-shape NiTi shape memory alloy, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 38, 1096, 10.1007/s11661-007-9127-4

Hamilton, 2017, Multi-scale shape memory effect recovery in NiTi alloys additive manufactured by selective laser melting and laser directed energy deposition, J. Mater. Process. Tech., 250, 55, 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.06.027

Niemi, 1997, Biocompatibility of nickel-titanium shape memory metal and its corrosion behavior in human cell cultures, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 35, 451, 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4636(19970615)35:4<451::AID-JBM5>3.0.CO;2-G

Webster, J.G. (2006). Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumentation, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.].

Fathi, 2004, A review on dental amalgam corrosion and its consequences, J. Res. Med. Sci., 1, 42

Stoner, 1971, Effect of sodium fluoride and stannous fluoride on the rate of corrosion of dental amalgams, J. Dent. Res., 50, 1647, 10.1177/00220345710500065001

Eley, 1997, The future of dental amalgam: A review of the literature. Part 1: Dental amalgam structure and corrosion, Brit. Dent. J., 182, 247, 10.1038/sj.bdj.4809360

Joska, L., Bystrainsky, L., and Novák, P. (2022, January 22–27). The effect of the alloy powder preparation on the corrosion behaviour of dental amalgams. Proceedings of the 15th International Corrosion Congress, Granada, Spain.

Newton, 2002, Dental fillings, Chem. Br., 38, 24

Sarkar, 1987, The microstructural basis of creep of γ1 in dental amalgam, J. Oral. Rehabil., 14, 27, 10.1111/j.1365-2842.1987.tb00690.x

Rosenberg, A.D. (2001). In-Vitro Electrochemical Testing of a Microchip-Based Controlled Drug Delivery Device. [Master’s Thesis, M.I.T.].

Frankental, 1969, Anodic corrosion of gold in concentrated chloride solutions, J. Electrochem. Soc., 3, 465

Schuhmann, 1990, Adverse immune reactions to gold. I. Chronic treatment with an Au(I) drug sensitizes mouse T cells not to Au(I), but to Au(III) and induces autoantibody formation, J. Immun., 145, 2132, 10.4049/jimmunol.145.7.2132

Kokubo, 1991, Recent progress in glass-based materials for biomedical applications, J. Ceram. Soc. Jpn., 99, 965, 10.2109/jcersj.99.965

Li, 2016, Recent advances in bulk metallic glasses for biomedical applications, Acta Biomater., 36, 1, 10.1016/j.actbio.2016.03.047

Klement, 1960, Non-crystalline structure in solidified gold–silicon alloys, Nature, 187, 869, 10.1038/187869b0

Qin, 2007, Fabrication and corrosion property of novel Ti-based bulk glassy alloys without Ni, Mater. Trans., 48, 515, 10.2320/matertrans.48.515

Oak, 2007, Attempt to develop Ti-based amorphous alloys for biomaterials, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 449–451, 220, 10.1016/j.msea.2006.02.307

Oak, 2008, Formation, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of Ti–Pd base glassy alloys, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 354, 1828, 10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2007.10.025

Xie, 2013, Recent progress in Ti-based metallic glasses for application as biomaterials, Mater. Trans., 54, 1314, 10.2320/matertrans.MF201315

Sarac, 2017, Hierarchical surface patterning of Ni- and Be-free Ti- and Zr-based bulk metallic glasses by thermoplastic net-shaping, Mater. Sci. Eng. C, 73, 398, 10.1016/j.msec.2016.12.059

Calin, 2013, Designing biocompatible Ti-based metallic glasses for implant applications, Mater. Sci. Eng. C, 33, 875, 10.1016/j.msec.2012.11.015

Li, 2014, New developments of Ti-based alloys for biomedical applications, Materials, 7, 1709, 10.3390/ma7031709

Schroers, 2009, Bulk metallic glasses for biomedical applications, JOM, 61, 21, 10.1007/s11837-009-0128-1

Tantavisut, S., Lohwongwatana, B., Khamkongkaeo, A., Tanavalee, A., Tangpornprasert, P., and Ittiravivong, P. The novel toxic free titanium-based amorphous alloy for biomedical application. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2017.

Suo, 2013, A new Ti-Zr-Cu-Si amorphous alloy with excellent biocompatibility, Adv. Mater. Res., 791–793, 435, 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.791-793.435

Chen, 2010, The potential of Zr-based bulk metallic glasses as biomaterials, Front. Mater. Sci. China, 4, 34, 10.1007/s11706-010-0004-5

Disegi, J.A., Kennedy, R.L., and Pilliar, R. (1999). Amorphous alloys containing cobalt for orthopaedic applications. Cobalt-Base Alloys for Biomedical Applications, ASTM. ASTM STP 1365.

Jacobs, J.J., and Craig, T.L. (1998). Glassy alloys as potential bearing surfaces for orthopaedic implants. Alternative Bearing Surfaces in Total Joint Replacement, ASTM. ASTM STP 1346.

Zheng, 2014, Biodegradable metals, Mater. Sci. Eng. R, 77, 1, 10.1016/j.mser.2014.01.001

Witte, 2010, The history of biodegradable magnesium implants: A review, Acta Biomater., 6, 1680, 10.1016/j.actbio.2010.02.028

Wang, 2017, Research progress on biodegradable zinc-based biomaterials, Acta Metall. Sin., 53, 1317

Levy, G.K., Goldman, J., and Aghion, E. (2017). The prospects of zinc as a structural material for biodegradable implants. Metals, 7.

Ma, 2015, Endothelial cellular responses to biodegradable metal zinc, ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng., 1, 1174, 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.5b00319

Chen, 2018, Assessment of the biocompatibility and biological effects of biodegradable pure zinc material in the colorectum, ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng., 4, 4095, 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b00957

Catalano, 2018, Prototyping of biodegradable flat stents in pure zinc by laser microcutting and chemical etching, J. Micromech. Microeng., 28, 95016, 10.1088/1361-6439/aac83d

Capek, 2018, Preparation and characterization of porous zinc prepared by spark plasma sintering as a material for biodegradable scaffolds, Mater. Chem. Phys., 203, 249, 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2017.10.008

Drelich, 2016, Importance of oxide film in endovascular biodegradable zinc stents, Surf. Innov., 4, 133, 10.1680/jsuin.16.00014

Vojtech, 2015, Comparative mechanical and corrosion studies on magnesium, zinc and iron alloys as biodegradable metals, Mater. Technol., 49, 877

Trisi, 2009, Implant micromotion is related to peak insertion torque and bone density, Clin. Oral Implants Res., 20, 467, 10.1111/j.1600-0501.2008.01679.x

Elliott, 2012, Implant material properties and their role in micromotion and failure in total hip arthroplasty, Int. J. Mech. Mater. Des., 8, 1, 10.1007/s10999-011-9172-4

Gao, 2012, Micromotions and combined damages at the dental implant/bone interface, Int. J. Oral Sci., 4, 182, 10.1038/ijos.2012.68

Swanberg, 1995, Avoiding implant overload, Implant Soc., 6, 12

Eliaz, N. (2012). Fatigue failure of materials for medical devices. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 11.

Eliaz, N. (2012). Implant infections and infection-resistant materials. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 13.

Anderson, 1993, Mechanisms of inflammation and infection with implanted devices, Cardiovasc. Pathol., 2, S33, 10.1016/1054-8807(93)90045-4

Tang, 1995, Inflammatory responses to biomaterials, Am. J. Clin. Pathol., 103, 466, 10.1093/ajcp/103.4.466

Akopians, 2015, The role of inflammatory pathways in implantation failure: Chronic endometritis and hydrosalpinges, Semin. Reprod. Med., 33, 298, 10.1055/s-0035-1554916

Dekel, 2010, Inflammation and implantation, Am. J. Reprod. Immunol., 63, 17, 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2009.00792.x

Eliaz, N. (2012). Biomaterial calcification: Mechanisms and prevention. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 14.

Jones, 2001, Focal osteolysis at the junctions of a modular stainless-steel femoral intramedullary nail, J. Bone Joint Surg. A, 83, 537, 10.2106/00004623-200104000-00008

Eliaz, 2007, Preventative maintenance and failure analysis of aircraft components, Corros. Rev., 25, 107, 10.1515/CORRREV.2007.25.1-2.107

Eliaz, N. (2012). The use of finite element analysis in design, life prediction, and failure analysis of biomaterials and medical devices. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 16.

Eliaz, N. (2012). Orthopedic implant retrieval and failure analysis. Degradation of Implant Materials, Springer. Chapter 15.

Medical Device Reporting (MDR) (2018, August 26). U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA), Available online: https://www.fda.gov/medicaldevices/safety/reportaproblem/default.htm.

(2016). Medical Device Reporting for Manufacturers: Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff.

Lakstein, 2011, Fracture of cementless femoral stems at the mid-stem junction in modular revision hip arthroplasty systems, J. Bone Joint Surg. A, 93, 57, 10.2106/JBJS.I.01589

Waterhouse, R.B. (1981). Fretting Fatigue, Intl Ideas.

Venkatesh, 2001, An experimental investigation of fretting fatigue in Ti-6Al-4V: The role of contact conditions and microstructure, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 32, 1131, 10.1007/s11661-001-0124-8

Bundy, 1994, Corrosion and other electrochemical aspects of biomaterials, Crit. Rev. Biomed. Eng., 22, 139

Niinomi, M., Narushima, T., and Nakai, M. (2015). Corrosion of metallic biomaterials. Advances in Metallic Biomaterials, Springer.

Gilbert, 2017, Corrosion in the human body: Metallic implants in the complex body environment, Corrosion, 73, 1478, 10.5006/2563

Seah, 1995, A comparison between the corrosion behaviour of sintered and unsintered porous titanium, Corros. Sci., 37, 1333, 10.1016/0010-938X(95)00033-G

Becker, 1995, Production of porous sintered Co–Cr–Mo alloys for possible surgical implant applications: Part 2: Corrosion behavior, Powder Metall., 38, 305, 10.1179/pom.1995.38.4.305

Guindy, 2004, Corrosion at the marginal gap of implant-supported suprastructures and implant failure, Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Implants, 19, 826

(2013). Standard Guide for Examination and Evaluation of Pitting Corrosion, ASTM. ASTM G46-94(2013).

Shankar, 2002, On the pitting corrosion resistance of nitrogen alloyed coled worked austenitic stainless steels, Corros. Sci., 44, 2183, 10.1016/S0010-938X(02)00035-5

Clerc, 1997, Assessment of wrought ASTM F1058 cobalt alloy properties for permanent surgical implants, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 38, 229, 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4636(199723)38:3<229::AID-JBM7>3.0.CO;2-R

Mueller, 1970, Polarization studies of surgical materials in ringer’s solution, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 4, 29, 10.1002/jbm.820040105

Syrett, 1978, Pitting resistance of new and conventional orthopedic implant materials—Effect of metallurgical condition, Corrosion, 34, 138, 10.5006/0010-9312-34.4.138

Lucas, 1982, Susceptibility of surgical cobalt-base alloy to pitting corrosion, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 16, 799, 10.1002/jbm.820160606

Strietzel, 1998, In vitro corrosion of titanium, Biomaterials, 19, 1495, 10.1016/S0142-9612(98)00065-9

(2014). Standard Test Method for Pitting or Crevice Corrosion of Metallic Surgical Implant Materials, ASTM. ASTM F746-04(2014).

Sullivan, 2017, The effects of surface processing on in-vivo corrosion of Nitinol stents in a porcine model, Acta Biomater., 62, 385, 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.08.029

Chou, 2013, In vitro and in vivo corrosion, cytocompatibility and mechanical properties of biodegradable Mg–Y–Ca–Zr alloys as implant materials, Acta Biomater., 9, 8518, 10.1016/j.actbio.2013.06.025

Gilbert, 1994, Intergranular corrosion fatigue failure of cobalt-alloy femoral stems: A failure analysis of two implants, J. Bone Joint Surg. A, 76, 110, 10.2106/00004623-199401000-00014

Gilbert, 1993, In vivo corrosion of modular hip prosthesis components in mixed and similar metal combinations. The effect of crevice, stress, motion, and alloy coupling, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 27, 1533, 10.1002/jbm.820271210

Panigrahi, 2014, Intergranular pitting corrosion of CoCrMo biomedical implant alloy, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B, 102B, 850, 10.1002/jbm.b.33067

Kirkland, 2010, In-vitro dissolution of magnesium–calcium binary alloys: Clarifying the unique role of calcium additions in bioresorbable magnesium implant alloys, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B, 95, 91, 10.1002/jbm.b.31687

Zeng, 2008, Progress and challenge for magnesium alloys as biomaterials, Adv. Eng. Mater., 10, B3, 10.1002/adem.200800035

Erlebacher, 2001, Evolution of nanoporosity in dealloying, Nature, 410, 450, 10.1038/35068529

Craig, 2006, Material failure modes. III. A brief tutorial on corrosion related material failure modes, J. Fail. Anal. Prev., 6, 12, 10.1361/154770206X99262

Jung, 2012, In vivo corrosion mechanism by elemental interdiffusion of biodegradable Mg–Ca alloy, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B, 100, 2251, 10.1002/jbm.b.32795

Tai, 1992, Leaching of nickel, chromium, and beryllium ions from base metal alloy in an artificial oral environment, J. Prosthet. Dent., 68, 692, 10.1016/0022-3913(92)90388-Q

(2014). Standard Guide for Conducting and Evaluating Galvanic Corrosion Tests in Electrolytes, ASTM. ASTM G71-81(2014).

(2014). Standard Guide for Development and Use of a Galvanic Series for Predicting Galvanic Corrosion Performance, ASTM. ASTM G82-98(2014).

(2014). Test Method for Standard Test Method for Evaluating the Potential for Galvanic Corrosion for Medical Implants, ASTM. ASTM F3044-14.

Mears, 1975, The use of dissimilar metals in surgery, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Symp., 6, 133, 10.1002/jbm.820090417

Wilson, 1975, Excision of tumors of humerus and femur, with restoration by internal prostheses, J. Bone Joint Surg. B, 57, 148

Lucas, 1981, Investigations on the galvanic corrosion of multialloy total hip prostheses, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 15, 731, 10.1002/jbm.820150509

Rostoker, 1974, Couple corrosion among alloys for skeletal prostheses, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 8, 407, 10.1002/jbm.820080609

Mellado-Valero, A., Igual Muñoz, A., Guiñón Pina, V., and Sola-Ruiz, M.F. (2018). Electrochemical behaviour and galvanic effects of titanium implants coupled to metallic suprastructures in artificial saliva. Materials, 11.

Arslan, 2008, Galvanic corrosion of titanium-based dental implant materials, J. Appl. Electrochem., 38, 853, 10.1007/s10800-008-9523-5

Zitter, 1993, Galvanic corrosion of an implant consisting of iron and brass, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med., 4, 159, 10.1007/BF00120385

(2009). Non-Active Surgical Implants. Joint Replacement Implants. Particular Requirements, British Standards Institution. BS EN ISO 21534:2009.

Eliaz, 2002, Characteristics of hydrogen embrittlement, stress corrosion cracking and tempered martensite embrittlement in high-strength steels, Eng. Fail. Anal., 9, 167, 10.1016/S1350-6307(01)00009-7

Raman, 2008, Evaluating the stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of Mg–Al–Zn alloy in modified-simulated body fluid for orthopaedic implant application, Scr. Mater., 59, 175, 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2008.03.001

Jafari, 2015, A review of stress-corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue of magnesium alloys for biodegradable implant applications, JOM, 67, 1143, 10.1007/s11837-015-1366-z

Bundy, 1983, In vivo and in vitro studies of the stress-corrosion cracking behavior of surgical implant alloys, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 17, 467, 10.1002/jbm.820170307

Bombara, 1977, Stress corrosion cracking of bone implants, Corros. Sci., 17, 77, 10.1016/0010-938X(77)90010-5

Jones, 1978, Stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue of some surgical implant materials in a physiological saline environment, Corrosion, 34, 226, 10.5006/0010-9312-34.7.226

Evron, A. (2004). Bio-Ferrography and Failure Analysis of Artificial Hip and Knee Joints. [Maeter’s Thesis, Tel-Aviv University].

Wang, 2017, Failure mechanisms in CoCrMo modular femoral stems for revision total hip arthroplasty, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B, 105B, 1525, 10.1002/jbm.b.33693

Antunes, 2012, Corrosion fatigue of biomedical metallic alloys: Mechanisms and mitigation, Acta Biomater., 8, 937, 10.1016/j.actbio.2011.09.012

(2014). Standard Practice for Corrosion Fatigue Testing of Metallic Implant Materials, ASTM. ASTM F1801-97(2014).

(2016). Dentistry—Implants—Dynamic Loading Test for Endosseous Dental Implants, International Organization for Standardization. ISO 14801:2016.

Shreir, L.L., Jarman, R.A., and Burstein, G.T. (1994). Surgical implants. Corrosion, Butterworth Heinemann. [3rd ed.].

Fraker, A.C., and Griffin, C.D. (1985). Corrosion-fatigue performance of hip nails: The influence of materials and design. Corrosion and Degradation of Implant Materials, ASTM. ASTM STP 859.

Yu, 1993, Corrosion fatigue resistances of surgical implant stainless steels and titanium alloy, Corros. Sci., 35, 587, 10.1016/0010-938X(93)90193-K

Okazaki, 1996, Corrosion resistance and corrosion fatigue strength of new titanium alloys for medical implants without V and Al, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 213, 138, 10.1016/0921-5093(96)10247-1

Fleck, 2010, Corrosion, fatigue and corrosion fatigue behaviour of metal implant materials, especially titanium alloys, Int. J. Fatigue, 32, 929, 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2009.09.009

Papakyriacou, 2000, Effects of surface treatments on high cycle corrosion fatigue of metallic implant materials, Int. J. Fatigue, 22, 873, 10.1016/S0142-1123(00)00057-8

Raman, R.K.S., and Harandi, S.E. (2017). Resistance of magnesium alloys to corrosion fatigue for biodegradable implant applications: Current status and challenges. Materials, 10.

Harandi, 2017, Corrosion fatigue of a magnesium alloy under appropriate human physiological conditions for bio-implant applications, Eng. Fract. Mech., 186, 134, 10.1016/j.engfracmech.2017.09.031

Jafari, 2017, Stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue characterisation of MgZn1Ca0.3 (ZX10) in a simulated physiological environment, J. Mech. Behavior Biomed. Mater., 65, 634, 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2016.09.033

Diener, 2004, Fatigue and corrosion fatigue of high-nitrogen austenitic stainless steel, Mater. Manufact. Process., 19, 111, 10.1081/AMP-120027519

Colangelo, 1969, Corrosion fatigue in surgical implants, J. Basic Eng., 91, 581, 10.1115/1.3571192

Peivandi, 2007, In-body corrosion fatigue failure of a stainless steel orthopaedic implant with a rare collection of different damage mechanisms, Eng. Fail. Anal., 14, 1205, 10.1016/j.engfailanal.2006.11.037

Hamandi, F., Laughlin, R., and Goswami, T. (2018). Failure analysis of PHILOS plate construct used for pantalar arthrodesis Paper II—Screws and FEM simulations. Metals, 8.

Landolt, D., and Mischler, S. (2011). Tribocorrosion of Passive Metals and Coatings, Woodhead Publishing.

Cohen, 1968, Fretting corrosion in orthopedic implants, Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res., 61, 167, 10.1097/00003086-196811000-00017

Hoeppner, 1994, Fretting in orthopaedic implants: A review, Wear, 173, 189, 10.1016/0043-1648(94)90272-0

Parr, J.E., Mayor, M.B., and Marlowe, D.E. (1996). Fretting corrosion mechanisms at modular implant interfaces. Symp. Modularity Orthopaedic Implants, ASTM. ASTM STP1301.

Jacobs, 1998, Corrosion of metal orthopaedic implants, J. Bone Joint Surg., 80-A, 268, 10.2106/00004623-199802000-00015

Tritschler, 1999, Fretting corrosion of materials for orthopaedic implants: A study of a metal/polymer contact in an artificial physiological medium, Tribol. Int., 32, 587, 10.1016/S0301-679X(99)00099-7

Barril, 2002, A tribo-electrochemical apparatus for in vitro investigation of fretting–corrosion of metallic implant materials, Wear, 252, 744, 10.1016/S0043-1648(02)00027-3

Forest, 2005, Fretting-corrosion of materials used as orthopaedic implants, Wear, 259, 943, 10.1016/j.wear.2004.11.027

Virtanen, 2008, Special modes of corrosion under physiological and simulated physiological conditions, Acta Biomater., 4, 468, 10.1016/j.actbio.2007.12.003

Landolt, D., and Mischler, S. (2011). Fretting corrosion in biomedical implants. Tribocorrosion of Passive Metals and Coatings, Woodhead Publishing.

Royhman, 2015, Fretting-corrosion in hip implant modular junctions: New experimental set-up and initial outcome, Tribol. Int., 91, 235, 10.1016/j.triboint.2015.04.032

Assini, 2015, Corrosion and fretting of a modular Hip system: A retrieval analysis of 60 rejuvenate stems, J. Arthroplasty, 30, 1470, 10.1016/j.arth.2015.03.010

Li, 2016, Fretting properties of biodegradable Mg-Nd-Zn-Zr alloy in air and in Hank’s solution, Sci. Rep., 6, 35803, 10.1038/srep35803

Mali, 2017, Effect of mixed alloy combinations on fretting corrosion performance of spinal screw and rod implants, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B Appl. Biomater., 105B, 1169, 10.1002/jbm.b.33661

Buente, 2017, The taper corrosion pattern observed for one bi-modular stem design is related to geometry-determined taper mechanics, Med. Eng. Phys., 46, 79, 10.1016/j.medengphy.2017.06.003

Wight, 2017, Evidence based recommendations for reducing head-neck taper connection fretting corrosion in hip, replacement prostheses, Hip Int., 27, 523, 10.5301/hipint.5000545

Ashkanfar, 2017, A large taper mismatch is one of the key factors behind high wear rates and failure at the taper junction of total hip replacements: A finite element wear analysis, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater., 69, 257, 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2017.01.018

Sivakumar, 2017, Role of surface roughness on corrosion and fretting corrosion behaviour of commercially pure titanium in Ringer’s solution for bio-implant application, Appl. Surf. Sci., 401, 385, 10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.01.033

Bingley, 2018, Fretting–corrosion at the modular tapers interface: Inspection of standard ASTM F1875-98, Proceed. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part H: J. Eng. Med., 232, 492, 10.1177/0954411918760958

Toh, W.Q., Tan, X., Bhowmik, A., Liu, E., and Tor, S.B. (2018). Tribochemical characterization and tribocorrosive behavior of CoCrMo alloys: A review. Materials, 11.

(2014). Standard Practice for Fretting Corrosion Testing of Modular Implant Interfaces: Hip Femoral Head-Bore and Cone Taper Interface, ASTM. ASTM F1875-98(2014).

Sawada, T., Schille, C., Almadani, A., and Geis-Gerstorfer, J. (2017). Fretting corrosion behavior of experimental Ti-20Cr compared to titanium. Materials, 10.

Celis, 2006, Tribo-corrosion of materials: Interplay between chemical, electrochemical and mechanical reactivity of the surfaces, Wear, 261, 939, 10.1016/j.wear.2006.03.027

Vieira, 2012, Mechanical and electrochemical deterioration mechanisms in the tribocorrosion of Al alloys in NaCl and in NaNO3 solutions, Corros. Sci., 54, 26, 10.1016/j.corsci.2011.08.041

Underwood, 2013, Does taper angle clearance influence fretting and corrosion damage at the head-stem interface? A matched cohort retrieval study, Semin. Arthroplast., 24, 246, 10.1053/j.sart.2014.01.002

Lemons, 1998, Surface modifications of surgical implants, Surf. Coat. Technol., 103–104, 135

Rasouli, 2018, A review of nanostructured surfaces and materials for dental implants: Surface coating, patterning and functionalization for improved performance, Biomater. Sci., 6, 1312, 10.1039/C8BM00021B

Liu, 2018, A unique hybrid-structured surface produced by rapid electrochemical anodization enhances bio-corrosion resistance and bone cell responses of β-type Ti-24Nb-4Zr-8Sn alloy, Sci. Rep., 8, 6623, 10.1038/s41598-018-24590-x

Asri, 2017, Corrosion and surface modification on biocompatible metals: A review, Mater. Sci. Eng. C, 77, 1261, 10.1016/j.msec.2017.04.102

Wen, C. (2015). Surface Coating and Modification of Metallic Biomaterials, Woodhead Publishing.

Dowling, 1997, Evaluation of diamond-like carbon-coated orthopaedic implants, Diam. Relat. Mater., 6, 390, 10.1016/S0925-9635(96)00687-5

Hauert, 2003, A review of modified DLC coatings for biological applications, Diam. Relat. Mater., 12, 583, 10.1016/S0925-9635(03)00081-5

Grill, 2003, Diamond-like carbon coatings as biocompatible materials—An overview, Diam. Relat. Mater., 12, 166, 10.1016/S0925-9635(03)00018-9

Kim, 2005, An abutment screw loosening study of a diamond like carbon-coated CP titanium implant, J. Oral Rehabil., 32, 346, 10.1111/j.1365-2842.2004.01475.x

Roy, 2007, Biomedical applications of diamond-like carbon coatings: A review, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B Appl. Biomater., 83B, 72, 10.1002/jbm.b.30768

Alakoski, 2008, Load-bearing biomedical applications of diamond-like carbon coatings—Current status, Open Orthop. J., 2, 43, 10.2174/1874325000802010043

Love, 2013, Diamond like carbon coatings for potential application in biological implants—A review, Tribol. Int., 63, 141, 10.1016/j.triboint.2012.09.006

Cui, 2000, A review of investigations on biocompatibility of diamond-like carbon and carbon nitride films, Surf. Coat. Technol., 131, 481, 10.1016/S0257-8972(00)00809-4

Thorwarth, 2014, On interlayer stability and high-cycle simulator performance of diamond-like carbon layers for articulating joint replacements, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 15, 10527, 10.3390/ijms150610527

Nakamura, 1996, Preliminary experience of Act-One™ coronary stent implantation, J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 27, 53, 10.1016/S0735-1097(96)80403-7

Eliaz, 2007, Innovative processes for electropolishing of medical devices made of stainless steels, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A, 83, 546, 10.1002/jbm.a.31429

Karlinsey, R.L. (2009). Electrochemical modification of biomaterial surfaces. Recent Developments in Advanced Medical and Dental Materials using Electrochemical Methodologies, Research Signpost.

(2013). Standard Practice for Surface Preparation and Marking of Metallic Surgical Implants, ASTM. ASTM F 86-13.

Liu, 2004, Surface modification of titanium, titanium alloys, and related materials for biomedical applications, Mater. Sci. Eng. R, 47, 49, 10.1016/j.mser.2004.11.001

Dong, 2006, Research status about surface modification of biomedical Ti and its alloys by micro-arc oxidation, Surf. Rev. Lett., 13, 35, 10.1142/S0218625X06007792

Park, 2006, Surface characteristics of anodized and hydrothermally treated titanium with an increasing concentration of calcium ion, Met. Mater. Int., 12, 399, 10.1007/BF03027706

Sharma, 2015, Spark anodization of titanium-zirconium alloy: Surface characterization and bioactivity assessment, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med., 26, 221, 10.1007/s10856-015-5555-7

Ahmed, W., and Jackson, M.J. (2016). Anodization: A promising nano modification technique of titanium-based implants for orthopedic applications. Surgical Tools and Medical Devices, Springer International Publishing.

Maurer, 1993, Reduction of fretting corrosion of Ti-6Al-4V by various surface treatments, J. Orthop. Res., 11, 865, 10.1002/jor.1100110613

Aparicio, 2003, Corrosion behaviour of commercially pure titanium shot blasted with different materials and sizes of shot particles for dental implant applications, Biomaterials, 24, 263, 10.1016/S0142-9612(02)00314-9

Hsu, 2007, Characterization and biocompatibility of a titanium dental implant with a laser irradiated and dual-acid etched surface, Bio-Med. Mater. Eng., 17, 53

Yue, 2002, Excimer laser surface treatment of Ti-6Al-4V alloy for corrosion resistance enhancement, Mater. Lett., 52, 206, 10.1016/S0167-577X(01)00395-0

Eliaz, N. (2011). Electrochemical techniques to obtain biofunctional materials. Applications of Electrochemistry in Biology and Medicine I, Springer Science+Business Media. (Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry, No. 52).

Metoki, 2014, Preparation and characterization of alkylphosphonic acid self-assembled monolayers on titanium alloy by chemisorption and electrochemical deposition, Langmuir, 30, 6791, 10.1021/la404829b

Mandler, D., Eliaz, N., and Metoki, N. (2013). Preparation of Organic Self-Assembled Monolayers Either Chemisorbed or Electrochemically Prepared on Titanium Alloy. (Application 61/827,903), US provisional Patent.

Jedwab, 1974, Corrosion of a Sherman plate implanted on the humerus over a 48-year period. Clinical and microscopic study, Acta Orthop. Belg., 40, 877

Seah, 1998, The influence of pore morphology on corrosion, Corros. Sci., 40, 547, 10.1016/S0010-938X(97)00152-2

Blackwood, 2000, Corrosion behaviour of porous titanium–graphite composites designed for surgical implants, Corros. Sci., 42, 481, 10.1016/S0010-938X(99)00103-1

Blackwood, 2002, Stability of protective oxide films formed on a porous titanium, Corros. Sci., 44, 395, 10.1016/S0010-938X(01)00080-4

Simon, 2005, Corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of a new porous surface for titanium implants, Eur. J. Oral Sci., 113, 537, 10.1111/j.1600-0722.2005.00247.x

Menini, 2006, Surface and corrosion electrochemical characterization of titanium foams for implant applications, J. Electrochem. Soc., 153, B13, 10.1149/1.2128098

Park, J.B., and Lakes, R.S. (2007). Hard tissue replacement II: Joints and teeth. Biomaterials: An Introduction, Springer Science. [3rd ed.].

Ong, K.L., Lovald, S., and Black, J. (2014). Corrosion and degradation. Orthopaedic Biomaterials in Research and Practice, CRC Press. [2nd ed.].

Dowson, D., and Wright, V. (1981). Properties of engineering materials for use in body. Introduction to Biomechanics of Joint and Joint Replacement, Wiley.