Common errors and clinical guidelines for manual muscle testing: "the arm test" and other inaccurate procedures

Goodheart GJ: Applied Kinesiology Research Manuals. 1964, privately published yearly, Detroit, MI

Florence PK, McCreary EK, Provance PG, Rodgers MM, Romani WA: Muscles: Testing and Function. 2005, Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 5

Glassley DP: Applied dental kinesiology: Temporomandibular joint dysfunction. Basal Facts. 1983, 5 (2): 65-6.

Goodheart GJ: Applied kinesiology and dentistry. Basal Facts. 1987, 9 (2): 69-73.

Many other chiropractic "name techniques" have evolved from AK that also employ MMT as part of their diagnostic system, including: Neuro Emotional Technique (N.E.T.); Neural Organization Technique (N.O.T.); Clinical Kinesiology; Contact Reflex Analysis (C.R.A.); Total Body Modification (T.B.M.), and others.

Goodheart GJ: Applied Kinesiology in Dysfunction of the Temporomandibular Joint, Chapter 13. The Dental Clinics of North America: Symposium on Temporomandibular Joint Dysfunction and Treatment. Edited by: Gelb H. 1983, W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 27 (3): In613-630.

Walther DS: Applied Kinesiology and the Stomatognathic System, Chapter 15. New Concepts in Craniomandibular and chronic pain management. Edited by: Gelb H. 1994, Mosby-Wolfe, London, 349-368.

Chung AL, Shin EJ, Yoo IJ, Kim KS: Reliability of the kinesiologic occlusal position. Int J AK and Kinesio Med. 2005, 20: 6-10.

Tiekert CG: Applied kinesiology: Its use in veterinary diagnosis. Vet Med Small Anim Clin. 1981, 76 (11): 1621-1623.

Barbano RL: Handbook of Manual Muscle Testing. Neurology. 2000, 54 (5): 1211-

Karin Harms-Ringdahl: Muscle Strength. 1993, Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone

Kendall FP, McCreary EK, Provance PG: Muscles: Testing and Function, With Posture and Pain. 1993, Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins

Daniels L, Worthingham K: Muscle Testing – Techniques of Manual Examination. 2002, Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Co, 7

Green BN, Gin RH: George Goodheart, Jr., D.C., and a history of applied kinesiology. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1997, 20 (5): 331-337.

Walther DS: Applied Kinesiology, Synopsis. 2000, Pueblo, CO: Systems DC, 2

Walther DS: Applied Kinesiology . Principles and Practice of Manual Therapeutics: Medical Guides to Complementary & Alternative Medicine. Edited by: Coughlin P. 2002, Philadelphia: Churchill-Livingstone: Elsevier Science, Chapter 6:

Schmitt WH, Yanuck SF: Expanding the neurological examination using functional neurological assessment part II: neurologic basis of applied kinesiology. Intern J Neuroscience. 1999, 97: 77-108. 10.3109/00207459908994304.

Lüdtke R, Kunz B, Seeber N, Ring J: Test-retest-reliability and validity of the Kinesiology muscle test. Complement Ther Med. 2001, 9 (3): 141-5. 10.1054/ctim.2001.0455.

Tschernitschek H, Fink M: "Applied kinesiology" in medicine and dentistry – a critical review. Wien Med Wochenschr. 2005, 155 (3–4): 59-64. 10.1007/s10354-004-0113-9.

Garrow JS: Kinesiology and food allergy. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 296 (6636): 1573-4.

Pothmann R, von Frankenberg S, Hoicke C, Weingarten H, Lüdtke R: Evaluation of applied kinesiology in nutritional intolerance of childhood. Forsch Komplementarmed Klass Naturheilkd. 2001, 8 (6): 336-44. 10.1159/000057250.

Kenney JJ, Clemens R, Forsythe KD: Applied kinesiology unreliable for assessing nutrient status. J Am Diet Assoc. 1988, 88 (6): 698-704.

Motyka T, Yanuck S: Expanding the Neurological Examination Using Functional Neurologic Assessment Part I: Methodological Considerations. International Journal of Neuroscience. 1999, 97: 61-76. 10.3109/00207459908994303.

Triano J: Muscle Strength Testing as a Diagnostic Screen for Supplemental Nutrition Therapy: A Blind Study. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1982, 5: 179-

Rybeck D, Swenson R: The effect of oral administration of refined sugar on muscle strength. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1980, 3: 155-161.

Haas M, Cooperstein R, Peterson D: Disentangling manual muscle testing and Applied Kinesiology: critique and reinterpretation of a literature review. Chiropr Osteopat. 15: 11-10.1186/1746-1340-15-11.

Hall S, Lewith G, Brien S, Little P: A Review of the Literature in Applied and Specialised Kinesiology. Forsch Komplementarmed. 2008, 15: 40-46. 10.1159/000112820.

[http://kinesiologycollege.com.au/index.php/Courses/Short-Courses/Astro-Kinesiology.html]

Hyman R: The mischief-making of ideomotor action, Chapter 5. Science meets alternative medicine: what the evidence says about unconventional treatments. Edited by: Sampson, Vaughn. 2000, Amherst MA: Prometheus Books, 85-116.

Lewit K: Manipulative Therapy in Rehabilitation of the Locomotor System. 1999, London: Butterworths, 3

Liebenson C, Ed: Rehabilitation of the Spine: A Practitioner's Manual. 2007, Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2

Panjabi M: A hypothesis of chronic back pain: ligament subfailure injuries lead to muscle control dysfunction. Eur Spine J. 2006, 15 (5): 668-676. 10.1007/s00586-005-0925-3.

Janda V: Muscle strength in relation to muscle length, pain and muscle imbalance, Chapter 6. Muscle Strength. Edited by: Harms-Ringdahl K. 1993, New York: Churchill Livingstone

Sahrmann S: Diagnosis and Treatment of Movement Impairment Syndromes. 2001, St. Louis, MO: Mosby, Inc

Bergmark A: Stability of the lumbar spine. A study in mechanical engineering. Acta Orthop Scand Suppl. 1989, 230: 1-54.

Hammer WI, Ed: Functional Soft Tissue Examination and Treatment by Manual Methods. 1999, Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, 415-445. 2

Nicholas JA, Marino M: The relationship of injuries of the leg, foot, and ankle to proximal thigh strength in athletes. Foot Ankle. 1987, 7 (4): 218-28.

DeAndrade JR, Grant C, Dixon A: Joint distension and reflex muscle inhibition in the knee. J Bone Joint Surg. 1965, 47: 313-322.

Stokes M, Young A: Investigations of quadriceps inhibition: implications for clinical practice. Physiotherapy. 1984, 70: 425-428.

Spencer JD, Hayes KC, Alexander IJ: Knee joint effusion and quadriceps reflex inhibition in man. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1984, 65 (4): 171-177.

Nummi J, Jarvinen T, Stambej U, Wickstrom G: Diminished dynamic performance capacity of back and abdominal muscles in concrete reinforcement workers. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1978, 4 (Suppl 1): 39-46.

Hodges PW, Richardson CA: Inefficient muscular stabilization of the lumbar spine associated with low back pain. Spine. 1996, 21: 2640-2650. 10.1097/00007632-199611150-00014.

Hossain M, Nokes LDM: A model of dynamic sacro-iliac joint instability from malrecruitment of gluteus maximus and biceps femoris muscles resulting in low back pain. Medical Hypotheses. 2005, 65 (2): 278-281. 10.1016/j.mehy.2005.02.035.

Zafar H: Integrated jaw and neck function in man. Studies of mandibular and head-neck movements during jaw opening-closing tasks. Swed Dent J Suppl. 2000, 1-41. 143

Jull GA: Deep cervical flexor muscle dysfunction in whiplash. J Musculoskel Pain. 2000, 8: 143-154. 10.1300/J094v08n01_12.

Jull G, Barret C, Magee R, Ho P: Further clinical clarification of the muscle dysfunction in cervical headache. Cephalgia. 1999, 19: 179-185. 10.1046/j.1468-2982.1999.1903179.x.

Vernon HT, Aker P, Aramenko M, Battershill D, Alepin A, Penner T: Evaluation of neck muscle strength with a modified sphygmomanometer dynamometer: reliability and validity. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1992, 15 (6): 343-9.

Edgerton VR, Wolf SL, Levendowski DJ, Roy RR: Theoretical basis for patterning EMG amplitudes to assess muscle dysfunction. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996, 28 (6): 744-751.

Shambaugh P: Changes in Electrical Activity in Muscles Resulting from Chiropractic Adjustment: A Pilot Study. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1987, 10 (6): 300-304.

Dishman JD, Bulbulian R: Spinal reflex attenuation associated with spinal manipulation. Spine. 25 (19): 2519-24. 10.1097/00007632-200010010-00015.

Suter E, McMorland G: Decrease in elbow flexor inhibition after cervical spine manipulation in patients with chronic neck pain. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2002, 17 (7): 541-4. 10.1016/S0268-0033(02)00025-6.

Floman Y, Liram N, Gilai AN: Spinal manipulation results in immediate H-reflex changes in patients with unilateral disc herniations. Eur Spine J. 1997, 6 (6): 398-401. 10.1007/BF01834067.

Murphy BA, Dawson NJ, Slack JR: Sacroiliac joint manipulation decreases the H-reflex. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1995, 35: 87-94.

Unger J: The effects of a pelvic blocking procedure upon muscle strength: a pilot study. Chiropractic Technique. 1998, 10 (4):

Perot D, Goubel F, Meldener R: Quantification of the Inhibition of Muscular Strength Following the Application of a Chiropractic Maneuver. Journale de Biophysique et de Biomecanique. 1986, 32 (10): 471-474.

Dishman JD, Greco DS, Burke JR: Motor-evoked potentials recorded from lumbar erector spinae muscles: a study of corticospinal excitability changes associated with spinal manipulation. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2008, 31 (4): 258-70. 10.1016/j.jmpt.2008.03.002.

Brooks VB: The Neural Basis of Motor Control. 1986, New York: Oxford University Press

Leahy PM: Active Release Techniques: Logical Soft Tissue Treatment. Functional Soft Tissue Examination and Treatment by Manual Methods. Edited by: Hammer WI. 1999, Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, Chapter 17: 551-2

Janda V: Movement patterns in the pelvic and hip region with special reference to pathogenesis of vertebrogenic disturbances. PhD thesis. 1964, Charles University, Prague

Tecco S, Salini V, Teté S, Festa F: Effects of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury on muscle activity of head, neck and trunk muscles: a cross-sectional evaluation. Cranio. 2007, 25 (3): 177-85.

Headley BJ: Muscle inhibition. Physical Therapy Forum. 1993, 1: 24-26.

Simons DG: Referred phenomena of myofascial trigger points. New Trends in Referred Pain and Hyperalgesia. Edited by: Vecchiet L, Albe-Fessard D, Lindlom U. 1993, Amsterdam, Elsevier

Janda V: Muscle Function Testing. 1983

Sherrington C: Selected Writings of Sir Charles Sherrington. Edited by: Brown DD. 1979, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 274-282.

Lund JP, Donga R, Widmer CG, Stohler CS: The pain-adaptation model: a discussion of the relationship between chronic musculoskeletal pain and motor activity. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1991, 69 (5): 683-694.

Goldberg EJ, Neptune RR: Compensatory strategies during normal walking in response to muscle weakness and increased hip joint stiffness. Gait Posture. 2007, 25 (3): 360-7. 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2006.04.009.

Collected Papers International College of Applied Kinesiology. 1976, Shawnee Mission, KS: ICAK USA

Aina A, May S, Clare H: The centralization phenomenon of spinal symptoms-a systematic review. Man Ther. 2004, 9 (3): 134-43. 10.1016/j.math.2004.03.004.

Biering-Sorensen F: Physical measurements as risk indicators for low-back trouble over a one-year period. Spine. 1984, 9 (2): 106-19. 10.1097/00007632-198403000-00002.

Karvonen MJ, Viitasalo JT, Komi PV, Nummi J, Jarvinen T: Back and leg complaints in relation to muscle strength in young men. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1980, 12 (2): 53-9.

Barton PM, Hayes KC: Neck flexor muscle strength, efficiency, and relaxation times in normal subjects and subjects with unilateral neck pain and headache. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1996, 77 (7): 680-7. 10.1016/S0003-9993(96)90008-8.

Cady LD, Bischoff DP, O'Connell ER, Thomas PC, Allan JH: Strength and fitness and subsequent back injuries in firefighters. J Occup Med. 1979, 21 (4): 269-72.

Schellhas KP, Smith MD, Gundry CR, Pollei SR: Cervical discogenic pain. Prospective correlation of magnetic resonance imaging and discography in asymptomatic subjects and pain sufferers. Spine. 1996, 21 (3): 300-311. 10.1097/00007632-199602010-00009.

Spitzer WO, LeBlanc FE, Dupuis M, et al: Scientific approach to the assessment and management of activity-related spinal disorders. A monograph for clinicians. Report of the Quebec Task Force on Spinal Disorders. Spine. 1987, 12 (7 Suppl): S1-59.

American Medical Association: Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment. 2001, 510-5

Frost R: Applied Kinesiology: A training manual and reference book of basic principals and practices. 2002, Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, Berkeley

Leaf D: Applied Kinesiology Flowchart Manual, III. 1995, Plymouth, MA: Privately published

Maffetone P: Complementary Sports Medicine: Balancing traditional and nontraditional treatments. 1999, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics

Minning S, Eliot CA, Uhl TL, Malone TR: EMG analysis of shoulder muscle fatigue during resisted isometric shoulder elevation. J Electromyogr Kinesiol.

Kibler WB, Sciascia A, Dome D: Evaluation of Apparent and Absolute Supraspinatus Strength in Patients With Shoulder Injury Using the Scapular Retraction Test. Am J Sports Med. 34 (10): 1643-1647. 10.1177/0363546506288728.

Tyler TF, Nahow RC, Nicholas SJ, McHugh MP: Quantifying shoulder rotation weakness in patients with shoulder impingement. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2005, 14 (6): 570-4. 10.1016/j.jse.2005.03.003.

Michener LA, Boardman ND, Pidcoe PE, Frith AM: Scapular muscle tests in subjects with shoulder pain and functional loss: reliability and construct validity. Phys Ther. 2005, 85 (11): 1128-38.

Baker CL, Merkley MS: Clinical Evaluation of the Athlete's Shoulder. J Athl Train. 2000, 35 (3): 256-260.

Perossa DR, Dziak M, Vernon HT, Hayashita K: The intra-examiner reliability of manual muscle testing of the hip and shoulder with a modified sphygmomanometer: a preliminary study of normal. J Can Chiropr Assoc. 1998, 42: 2-

McCarthy CJ, Callaghan MJ, Oldham JA: The reliability of isometric strength and fatigue measures in patients with knee osteoarthritis. Man Ther. 2008, 13 (2): 159-64. 10.1016/j.math.2006.12.003.

Mulroy SJ, Lassen KD, Chambers SH, Perry J: The ability of male and female clinicians to effectively test knee extension strength using manual muscle testing. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1997, 26 (4): 192-9.

Hillermann B, Gomes AN, Korporaal C, Jackson D: A pilot study comparing the effects of spinal manipulative therapy with those of extra-spinal manipulative therapy on quadriceps muscle strength. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 2006, 29 (2): 145-9. 10.1016/j.jmpt.2005.12.003.

Hopkins JT, Ingersoll CD, Krause BA, Edwards JE, Cordova ML: Effect of knee joint effusion on quadriceps and soleus motoneuron pool excitability. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001, 33 (1): 123-6.

Madeleine P, Lundager B, Voigt M, Arendt-Nielsen L: Shoulder muscle co-ordination during chronic and acute experimental neck-shoulder pain. An occupational pain study. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1999, 79 (2): 127-40. 10.1007/s004210050486.

Hungerford B, Gilleard W, Hodges P: Evidence of Altered Lumbopelvic Muscle Recruitment in the Presence of Sacroiliac Joint Pain. Spine. 2003, 28 (14): 1593-1600. 10.1097/00007632-200307150-00022.

Mills KR, Edwards RH: Investigative strategies for muscle pain. J Neurol Sci. 1983, 58 (1): 73-8. 10.1016/0022-510X(83)90111-9.

Indahl A, Kaigle A, Reikeras O, Holm SH: Sacroiliac joint involvement in activation of the porcine spinal and gluteal musculature. J Spinal Disord. 1999, 12: 325-30. 10.1097/00002517-199908000-00009.

Cuthbert SC, Goodheart GJ: On the reliability and validity of manual muscle testing: a literature review. Chiropr Osteopat. 15 (1): 4-10.1186/1746-1340-15-4.

Mendell JR, Florence J: Manual muscle testing. Muscle Nerve. 1990, 13 (Suppl): S16-20. 10.1002/mus.880131307.

Caruso B, Leisman G: A Force/Displacement Analysis of Muscle Testing. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2000, 91: 683-692. 10.2466/PMS.91.6.683-692.

The websites of the ICAK-USA and ICAK-International offer teaching schedules for MMT courses as well as the Applied Kinesiology Research and Literature Compendium, where a collection of research papers on the tenets and practices of AK and chiropractic MMT can be reviewed. International College of Applied Kinesiology – U.S.A. and International Online [homepage on the internet]. http://www.icakusa.com/scientificresearch.php, and http://www.icak.com/college/research/publishedarticles.shtml. (Accessed April 27, 2008)