AT2R Activation Prevents Microglia Pro-inflammatory Activation in a NOX-Dependent Manner: Inhibition of PKC Activation and p47phox Phosphorylation by PP2A

Perry VH, Nicoll JA, Holmes C (2010) Microglia in neurodegenerative disease. Nat Rev Neurol 6:193–201 Yenari MA, Xu L, Tang XN, Qiao Y, Giffard RG (2006) Microglia potentiate damage to blood-brain barrier constituents: improvement by minocycline in vivo and in vitro. Stroke 37:1087–1093 Saijo K, Glass CK (2011) Microglial cell origin and phenotypes in health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 11:775–787 Rojo AI, McBean G, Cindric M, Egea J, Lopez MG, Rada P, Zarkovic N, Cuadrado A (2014) Redox control of microglial function: molecular mechanisms and functional significance. Antioxid Redox Signal 21:1766–1801 Salemi J, Obregon DF, Cobb A, Reed S, Sadic E, Jin J, Fernandez F, Tan J et al (2011) Flipping the switches: CD40 and CD45 modulation of microglial activation states in HIV associated dementia (HAD). Mol Neurodegener 6:3 Hu X, Leak RK, Shi Y, Suenaga J, Gao Y, Zheng P, Chen J (2015) Microglial and macrophage polarization-new prospects for brain repair. Nat Rev Neurol 11:56–64 Andersen JK (2004) Oxidative stress in neurodegeneration: cause or consequence? Nat Med 10(Suppl):S18–S25 Mariani E, Polidori MC, Cherubini A, Mecocci P (2005) Oxidative stress in brain aging, neurodegenerative and vascular diseases: an overview. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 827:65–75 Nakagawa Y, Chiba K (2014) Role of microglial m1/m2 polarization in relapse and remission of psychiatric disorders and diseases. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 7:1028–1048 Bedard K, Krause KH (2007) The NOX family of ROS-generating NADPH oxidases: physiology and pathophysiology. Physiol Rev 87:245–313 Choi SH, Aid S, Kim HW, Jackson SH, Bosetti F (2012) Inhibition of NADPH oxidase promotes alternative and anti-inflammatory microglial activation during neuroinflammation. J Neurochem 120:292–301 Egger T, Schuligoi R, Wintersperger A, Amann R, Malle E, Sattler W (2003) Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) attenuates cyclo-oxygenase 2 transcription and synthesis in immortalized murine BV-2 microglia. Biochem J 370(Pt 2):459–467. https://doi.org/10.1042/BJ20021358 Rodriguez-Pallares J, Rey P, Parga JA, Munoz A, Guerra MJ, Labandeira-Garcia JL (2008) Brain angiotensin enhances dopaminergic cell death via microglial activation and NADPH-derived ROS. Neurobiol Dis 31:58–73 Rodriguez-Perez AI, Borrajo A, Rodriguez-Pallares J, Guerra MJ, Labandeira-Garcia JL (2015) Interaction between NADPH-oxidase and rho-kinase in angiotensin II-induced microglial activation. Glia 63:466–482 Liao B, Zhao W, Beers DR, Henkel JS, Appel SH (2012) Transformation from a neuroprotective to a neurotoxic microglial phenotype in a mouse model of ALS. Exp Neurol 237:147–152 Saavedra JM (2012) Angiotensin II AT(1) receptor blockers as treatments for inflammatory brain disorders. Clin Sci (Lond) 123:567–590 Tota S, Kamat PK, Saxena G, Hanif K, Najmi AK, Nath C (2012) Central angiotensin converting enzyme facilitates memory impairment in intracerebroventricular streptozotocin treated rats. Behav Brain Res 226:317–330 Grammatopoulos TN, Jones SM, Ahmadi FA, Hoover BR, Snell LD, Skoch J, Jhaveri VV, Poczobutt AM et al (2007) Angiotensin type 1 receptor antagonist losartan, reduces MPTP-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra. Mol Neurodegener 2:1 Bhat SA, Goel R, Shukla R, Hanif K (2016) Angiotensin receptor blockade modulates NFκB and STAT3 signaling and inhibits glial activation and neuroinflammation better than angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition. Mol Neurobiol 53(10):6950–6967 Yamamoto S, Yancey PG, Zuo Y, Ma L-J, Kaseda R, Fogo AB, Ichikawa I, Linton MF et al (2011) Macrophage polarization by angiotensin II-type 1 receptor aggravates renal injury-acceleration of atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 31(12):2856–2864. https://doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.111.237198 Dikalov SI, Nazarewicz RR (2013) Angiotensin II-induced production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species: potential mechanisms and relevance for cardiovascular disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 19:1085–1094 McCarthy CA, Facey LJ, Widdop RE (2014) The protective arms of the renin-angiontensin system in stroke. Curr Hypertens Rep 16:440 McCarthy CA, Vinh A, Callaway JK, Widdop RE (2009) Angiotensin AT2 receptor stimulation causes neuroprotection in a conscious rat model of stroke. Stroke 40:1482–1489 Labandeira-Garcia JL, Rodríguez-Perez AI, Garrido-Gil P, Rodriguez-Pallares J, Lanciego JL, Guerra MJ (2017) Brain renin-angiotensin system and microglial polarization: implications for aging and neurodegeneration. Front Aging Neurosci 9:129. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2017.00129 Guimond MO, Gallo-Payet N (2012) How does angiotensin AT(2) receptor activation help neuronal differentiation and improve neuronal pathological situations? Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 3:164 Iwai M, Liu HW, Chen R, Ide A, Okamoto S, Hata R, Sakanaka M, Shiuchi T et al (2004) Possible inhibition of focal cerebral ischemia by angiotensin II type 2 receptor stimulation. Circulation 110:843–848 Reinecke K, Lucius R, Reinecke A, Rickert U, Herdegen T, Unger T (2003) Angiotensin II accelerates functional recovery in the rat sciatic nerve in vivo: role of the AT2 receptor and the transcription factor NF-kappaB. FASEB J 17:2094–2096 Li J, Culman J, Hortnagl H, Zhao Y, Gerova N, Timm M, Blume A, Zimmermann M et al (2005) Angiotensin AT2 receptor protects against cerebral ischemia-induced neuronal injury. FASEB J 19:617–619 Li JJ, Lu J, Kaur C, Sivakumar V, Wu CY, Ling EA (2009) Expression of angiotensin II and its receptors in the normal and hypoxic amoeboid microglial cells and murine BV-2 cells. Neuroscience 158:1488–1499 Cooney SJ, Bermudez-Sabogal SL, Byrnes KR (2013) Cellular and temporal expression of NADPH oxidase (NOX) isotypes after brain injury. J Neuroinflammation 10:155 Choi J, Ifuku M, Noda M, Guilarte TR (2011) Translocator protein (18 kDa)/peripheral benzodiazepine receptor specific ligands induce microglia functions consistent with an activated state. Glia 59:219–230 Ye J, Jiang Z, Chen X, Liu M, Li J, Liu N (2015) Electron transport chain inhibitors induce microglia activation through enhancing mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production. Exp Cell Res 340:315–326 Xie N, Li H, Wei D, LeSage G, Chen L, Wang S, Zhang Y, Chi L et al (2010) Glycogen synthase kinase-3 and p38 MAPK are required for opioid-induced microglia apoptosis. Neuropharmacology 59:444–451 Wen J, Ribeiro R, Zhang Y (2011) Specific PKC isoforms regulate LPS-stimulated iNOS induction in murine microglial cells. J Neuroinflammation 8:38. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-2094-8-38 Liu B, Hong JS (2003) Role of microglia in inflammation-mediated neurodegenerative diseases: mechanisms and strategies for therapeutic intervention. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 304:1–7 Bhat SA, Goel R, Shukla R, Hanif K (2017) Platelet CD40L induces activation of astrocytes and microglia in hypertension. Brain Behav Immun 59:173–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2016.09.021 Maurya CK, Arha D, Rai AK, Kumar SK, Pandey J, Avisetti DR, Kalivendi SV, Klip A et al (2015) NOD2 activation induces oxidative stress contributing to mitochondrial dysfunction and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle cells. Free Radic Biol Med 89:158–169 Khanna V, Jain M, Singh V, Kanshana JS, Prakash P, Barthwal MK, Murthy PS, Dikshit M (2013) Cholesterol diet withdrawal leads to an initial plaque instability and subsequent regression of accelerated iliac artery atherosclerosis in rabbits. PLoS One 8:e77037 Maehama T, Taylor GS, Slama JT, Dixon JE (2000) A sensitive assay for phosphoinositide phosphatases. Anal Biochem 279:248–250 Lee JW, Lee YK, Yuk DY, Choi DY, Ban SB, Oh KW, Hong JT (2008) Neuro-inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide causes cognitive impairment through enhancement of beta-amyloid generation. J Neuroinflammation 5:37 Lee S, Brait VH, Arumugam TV, Evans MA, Kim HA, Widdop RE, Jones ES (2012) Neuroprotective effect of an angiotensin receptor type 2 agonist following cerebral ischemia in vitro and in vivo. Exp Transl Stroke Med 4:16. https://doi.org/10.1186/2040-7378-4-16 Xi J, Lei C, Shen L, Chen Z, Xu L, Zhang J, Yu X (2016) Trans-astaxanthin attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation and depressive-like behavior in mice. Brain Res 1649(Pt A):30–37 Kinoshita D, Cohn DW, Costa-Pinto FA, de Sa-Rocha LC (2009) Behavioral effects of LPS in adult, middle-aged and aged mice. Physiol Behav 96:328–332 Pitychoutis PM, Nakamura K, Tsonis PA, Papadopoulou-Daifoti Z (2009) Neurochemical and behavioral alterations in an inflammatory model of depression: Sex differences exposed. Neuroscience 159:1216–1232 Rojo AI, Innamorato NG, Martin-Moreno AM, De Ceballos ML, Yamamoto M, Cuadrado A (2010) Nrf2 regulates microglial dynamics and neuroinflammation in experimental Parkinson’s disease. Glia 58:588–598 Gandhi S, Abramov AY (2012) Mechanism of oxidative stress in neurodegeneration. Oxidative Med Cell Longev 2012:428010 Li J, Wuliji O, Li W, Jiang ZG, Ghanbari HA (2013) Oxidative stress and neurodegenerative disorders. Int J Mol Sci 14:24438–24475 Uttara B, Singh AV, Zamboni P, Mahajan RT (2009) Oxidative stress and neurodegenerative diseases: a review of upstream and downstream antioxidant therapeutic options. Curr Neuropharmacol 7:65–74 Glass CK, Saijo K, Winner B, Marchetto MC, Gage FH (2010) Mechanisms underlying inflammation in neurodegeneration. Cell 140:918–934 Calabrese V, Guagliano E, Sapienza M, Mancuso C, Butterfield DA, Stella AM (2006) Redox regulation of cellular stress response in neurodegenerative disorders. Ital J Biochem 55:263–282 Apostolova N, Blas-Garcia A, Esplugues JV (2011) Mitochondria sentencing about cellular life and death: a matter of oxidative stress. Curr Pharm Des 17:4047–4060 Orihuela R, McPherson CA, Harry GJ (2016) Microglial M1/M2 polarization and metabolic states. Br J Pharmacol 173:649–665 Kirchhefer U, Heinick A, König S, Kristensen T, Müller FU, Seidl MD, Boknik P (2014) Protein phosphatase 2A is regulated by protein kinase Cα (PKCα)-dependent phosphorylation of its targeting subunit B56α at Ser41. J Biol Chem 289(1):163–176 Chia KKM, Liu C-C, Hamilton EJ, Garcia A, Fry NA, Hannam W, Figtree GA, Rasmussen HH (2015) Stimulation of the cardiac myocyte Na+-K+ pump due to reversal of its constitutive oxidative inhibition. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 309(4):C239–C250. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00392.2014 Minghetti L, Levi G (1998) Microglia as effector cells in brain damage and repair: Focus on prostanoids and nitric oxide. Prog Neurobiol 54:99–125 Domercq M, Vazquez-Villoldo N, Matute C (2013) Neurotransmitter signaling in the pathophysiology of microglia. Front Cell Neurosci 7:49–176. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M113.507996 Chien CH, Lee MJ, Liou HC, Liou HH, Fu WM (2016) Microglia-derived cytokines/chemokines are involved in the enhancement of LPS-induced loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons in DJ-1 knockout mice. PLoS One 11:e0151569 Benicky J, Sanchez-Lemus E, Honda M, Pang T, Orecna M, Wang J, Leng Y, Chuang DM et al (2011) Angiotensin II AT1 receptor blockade ameliorates brain inflammation. Neuropsychopharmacology 36:857–870