Intake of fish and long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and incidence of metabolic syndrome among American young adults: a 25-year follow-up study

Mozumdar A, Liguori G (2011) Persistent increase of prevalence of metabolic syndrome among U.S. adults: NHANES III to NHANES 1999–2006. Diabetes Care 34:216–219. doi:10.2337/dc10-0879 Carpentier YA, Portois L, Malaisse WJ (2006) n-3 fatty acids and the metabolic syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr 83:1499S–1504S Saravanan P, Davidson NC, Schmidt EB, Calder PC (2010) Cardiovascular effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids. Lancet 376:540–550. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60445-X Ruidavets JB, Bongard V, Dallongeville J, Arveiler D, Ducimetière P, Perret B, Simon C, Amouyel P, Ferrières J (2007) High consumptions of grain, fish, dairy products and combinations of these are associated with a low prevalence of metabolic syndrome. J Epidemiol Community Health 61:810–817. doi:10.1136/jech.2006.052126 Kouki R, Schwab U, Hassinen M, Komulainen P, Heikkilä H, Lakka TA, Rauramaa R (2010) Food consumption, nutrient intake and the risk of having metabolic syndrome: the DR’s EXTRA Study. Eur J Clin Nutr 65:368–377. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2010.262 Noel SE, Newby PK, Ordovas JM, Tucker KL (2010) Adherence to an (n-3) fatty acid/fish intake pattern is inversely associated with metabolic syndrome among Puerto Rican adults in the Greater Boston area. J Nutr 140:1846–1854. doi:10.3945/jn.110.124297 Fonseca MJ, Gaio R, Lopes C, Santos AC (2012) Association between dietary patterns and metabolic syndrome in a sample of Portuguese adults. Nutr J 11:64. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-11-64 Mirmiran P, Hosseinpour-Niazi S, Naderi Z, Bahadoran Z, Sadeghi M, Azizi F (2012) Association between interaction and ratio of ω-3 and ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid and the metabolic syndrome in adults. Nutrition 28:856–863. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2011.11.031 Lai YH, Petrone AB, Pankow JS, Arnett DK, North KE, Ellison RC, Hunt SC, Djoussé L (2013) Association of dietary omega-3 fatty acids with prevalence of metabolic syndrome: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study. Clin Nutr 32:966–969. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2013.05.002 Baik I, Abbott RD, Curb JD, Shin C (2010) Intake of fish and n-3 fatty acids and future risk of metabolic syndrome. J Am Diet Assoc 110:1018–1026. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.04.013 Friedman GD, Cutter GR, Donahue RP, Hughes GH, Hulley SB, Jacobs DR Jr, Liu K, Savage PJ (1988) CARDIA: study design, recruitment, and some characteristics of the examined subjects. J Clin Epidemiol 41:1105–1116 Xun P, Hou N, Daviglus M, Liu K, Morris JS, Shikany JM, Sidney S, Jacobs DR, He K (2011) Fish oil, selenium and mercury in relation to incidence of hypertension: a 20-year follow-up study. J Intern Med 270:175–186. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2010.02338.x McDonald A, Van Horn L, Slattery M et al (1991) The CARDIA dietary history: development, implementation, and evaluation. J Am Diet Assoc 91:1104–1112 Liu K, Slattery M, Jacobs D Jr et al (1994) A study of the reliability and comparative validity of the cardia dietary history. Ethn Dis 4:15–27 Nutrition Coordinating Center, University of Minnesota. Nutrition Data System for Research (NDSR), Food and Nutrient Database. http://www.ncc.umn.edu/products/ndsr.html. Accessed 10 Nov 2014 Mozaffarian D, Lemaitre RN, Kuller LH, Burke GL, Tracy RP, Siscovick DS (2003) Cardiac benefits of fish consumption may depend on the type of fish meal consumed: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation 107:1372–1377 Pereira MA, FitzerGerald SJ, Gregg EW, Joswiak ML, Ryan WJ, Suminski RR, Utter AC, Zmuda JM (1997) A collection of Physical Activity Questionnaires for health-related research. Med Sci Sports Exerc 29:S1–S205 Gunderson EP, Chiang V, Lewis CE, Catov J, Quesenberry CP Jr, Sidney S, Wei GS, Ness R (2008) Long-term blood pressure changes measured from before to after pregnancy relative to nonparous women. Obstet Gynecol 112:1294–1302. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e31818da09b Donahu RP, Jacobs DR, Sidney S, Wagenknecht LE, Alers JJ, Hulley SB (1989) Distribution of lipoproteins and apolipoproteins in young adults. Arteriosclerosis 9:656–664 Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (2001) Executive summary of the third report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 285:2486–2497 Fang J, Austin P, Tu J (2009) Test for linearity between continuous confounder and binary outcome first, run a multivariate regression analysis second. http://support.sas.com/resources/papers/proceedings09/252-2009.pdf. Accessed 10 Nov 2014 He K, Rimm EB, Merchant A, Rosner BA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Ascherio A (2002) Fish consumption and risk of stroke in men. JAMA 288:3130–3136 Cicero AF, Ertek S, Borghi C (2009) Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: their potential role in blood pressure prevention and management. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 7(3):330–337 Mori TA (2014) Dietary n-3 PUFA and CVD: a review of the evidence. Proc Nutr Soc 73:57–64 Harris WS (1997) n-3 fatty acids and serum lipoproteins: human studies. Am J Clin Nutr 65:1645S–1654S Eslick GD, Howe PR, Smith C, Priest R, Bensoussan A (2009) Benefits of fish oil supplementation in hyperlipidemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol 136:4–16. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.03.092 Oelrich B, Dewell A, Gardner CD (2013) Effect of fish oil supplementation on serum triglycerides, LDL cholesterol and LDL subfractions in hypertriglyceridemic adults. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 23:350–357 Buckley JD, Howe PR (2010) Long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may be beneficial for reducing obesity—a review. Nutrients 2:1212–1230. doi:10.3390/nu2121212 Harden CJ, Dible VA, Russell JM, Garaiova I, Plummer SF, Barker ME, Corfe BM (2014) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation had no effect on body weight but reduced energy intake in overweight and obese women. Nutr Res 34:17–24. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2013.10.004 Garaulet M, Pérez-Llamas F, Pérez-Ayala M, Martínez P, de Medina FS, Tebar FJ, Zamora S (2001) Site-specific differences in the fatty acid composition of abdominal adipose tissue in an obese population from a Mediterranean area: relation with dietary fatty acids, plasma lipid profile, serum insulin, and central obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 74:585–591 Fedor D, Kelley DS (2009) Prevention of insulin resistance by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 12:138–146. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e3283218299 Ramel A, Martinéz A, Kiely M, Morais G, Bandarra NM, Thorsdottir I (2008) Beneficial effects of long-chain n-3 fatty acids included in an energy-restricted diet on insulin resistance in overweight and obese European young adults. Diabetologia 51:1261–1268. doi:10.1007/s00125-008-1035-7 Krebs JD, Browning LM, McLean NK, Rothwell JL, Mishra GD, Moore CS, Jebb SA (2006) Additive benefits of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and weight-loss in the management of cardiovascular disease risk in overweight hyperinsulinaemic women. Int J Obes 30:1535–1544. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803309 Giacco R, Cuomo V, Vessby B, Uusitupa M, Hermansen K, Meyer BJ, Riccardi G, Rivellese AA (2007) Fish oil, insulin sensitivity, insulin secretion and glucose tolerance in healthy people: is there any effect of fish oil supplementation in relation to the type of background diet and habitual dietary intake of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids? Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 17:572–580 Djoussé L, Gaziano JM, Buring JE, Lee IM (2011) Dietary omega-3 fatty acids and fish consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr 93:143–150 Mori TA, Woodman RJ (2006) The independent effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on cardiovascular risk factors in humans. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 9:95–104 Conquer JA, Holub BJ (1996) Supplementation with an algae source of docosahexaenoic acid increases (n-3) fatty acid status and alters selected risk factors for heart disease in vegetarian subjects. J Nutr 126:3032–3039 Grimsgaard S, Bonaa KH, Hansen JB, Nordøy A (1997) Highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in humans have similar triacylglycerol-lowering effects but divergent effects on serum fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr 66:649–659 Wei MY, Jacobson TA (2011) Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid versus docosahexaenoic acid on serum lipids: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Atheroscler Rep 13:474–483. doi:10.1007/s11883-011-0210-3 Kunesová M, Braunerová R, Hlavatý P et al (2006) The influence of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and very low calorie diet during a short-term weight reducing regimen on weight loss and serum fatty acid composition in severely obese women. Physiol Res 55:63–72 Russell FD, Burgin-Maunder CS (2012) Distinguishing health benefits of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. Mar Drugs 10:2535–2559