Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not

Abdel Rahman, 2014, Assessment of executive functions in chronic Hepatitis C virus infected patients, Egypt. J. Hosp. Med., 55, 257, 10.12816/0004512 Alloway, 2010, Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment, J. Exp. Child Psychol., 106, 20, 10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003 Alloway, 2005, Working memory and phonological awareness as predictors of progress towards early learning goals at school entry, Br. J. Dev. Psychol., 23, 417, 10.1348/026151005X26804 Allport, 2000, Task switching, stimulus-response bindings, and negative priming, 35 Angevaren, 2008, Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment, Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 3, 1 Arnsten, 1998, The biology of being frazzled, Science, 280, 1711, 10.1126/science.280.5370.1711 Aron, 2007, Triangulating a cognitive control network using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional MRI, J. Neurosci., 27, 3743, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0519-07.2007 Aronson, 1999, When white men can’t do math: necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol., 35, 29, 10.1006/jesp.1998.1371 Ashby, 1999, A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition, Psychol. Rev., 106, 529, 10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.529 Audiffren, 2015, The strength model of self-control revisited: linking acute and chronic effects of exercise on executive functions, J. Sport and Health Sci., 4, 30, 10.1016/j.jshs.2014.09.002 Au, 2015, Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis, Psychon. Bull. Rev., 22, 366, 10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x Awh, 2000, The role of spatial selective attention in working memory for locations: evidence from event-related potentials, J. Cogn. Neurosci., 12, 840, 10.1162/089892900562444 Awh, 2001, Overlapping mechanisms of attention and spatial working memory, Trends Cog. Sci., 5, 119, 10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01593-X Baddeley, 1994, Developments in the concept of working memory, Neuropsychology, 8, 485, 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.485 Bailey, 2007, Cognitive accuracy and intelligent executive function in the brain and in business, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1118, 122, 10.1196/annals.1412.011 Ball, 2002, Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults: a randomized controlled trial, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 288, 2271, 10.1001/jama.288.18.2271 Bandura, 1994, Self-efficacy, vol. 3, 368 Bandura, 2006, Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales, vol. 5, 307 Barenberg, 2011, Executive functions in learning processes: do they benefit from physical activity?, Educ. Res. Rev., 6, 208, 10.1016/j.edurev.2011.04.002 Basak, 2008, Can training in a real-time strategy video game attenuate cognitive decline in older adults?, Psychol. Aging, 23, 765, 10.1037/a0013494 Baumeister, 2005, Social exclusion impairs self-regulation, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 88, 589, 10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.589 Baumeister, 2002, Effects of social exclusion on cognitive processes: anticipated aloneness reduces intelligent thought, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 83, 817, 10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.817 Bergman Nutley, 2011, Gains in fluid intelligence after training non-verbal reasoning in 4-year-old children: a controlled, randomized study, Dev. Sci., 14, 591, 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01022.x Beebe, 2002, Obstructive sleep apnea and the prefrontal cortex: towards a comprehensive model linking nocturnal upper airway obstruction to daytime cognitive and behavioral deficits, J. Sleep Res., 11, 1, 10.1046/j.1365-2869.2002.00289.x Bernier, 2013, Sleep and cognition in preschool years: specific links to executive functioning, Child Dev., 84, 1542, 10.1111/cdev.12063 Blanco-Gómez, 2015, Being overweight or obese is associated with inhibition control in children from six to ten years of age, Acta Paediatr., 104, 618, 10.1111/apa.12976 Birnbaum, 1999, A role for norepinephrine in stress-induced cognitive deficits: alpha-1-adrenoceptor mediation in the prefrontal cortex, Biol. Psychiatry, 46, 1266, 10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00138-9 Best, 2010, Effects of physical activity on children's executive function: contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise, Dev. Rev., 30, 331, 10.1016/j.dr.2010.08.001 Bjork, 2001, How to succeed in college: learn how to learn, APS Obs., 14, 9 Blackwell, 2007, Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: a longitudinal study and an intervention, Child Dev., 78, 246, 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00995.x Blair, 2002, School readiness: integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children's functioning at school entry, Am. Psychol., 57, 111, 10.1037/0003-066X.57.2.111 Blair, 2014, Closing the achievement gap through modification of neurocognitive and neuroendocrine function: results from a cluster randomized controlled trial of an innovative approach to the education of children in kindergarten, PLoS ONE, 9, e112393, 10.1371/journal.pone.0112393 Blair, 2007, Relating effortful control, executive function, and false-belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten, Child Dev., 78, 647, 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x Blumenthal, 1989, Cardiovascular and behavioral effects of aerobic exercise training in healthy older men and women, J. Gerontol., 44, M147, 10.1093/geronj/44.5.M147 Bodrova, 2007 Boot, 2013, The pervasive problem with placebos in Psychology: why active control groups are not sufficient to rule out placebo effects, Perspect. Psychol. Sci., 8, 445, 10.1177/1745691613491271 Borella, 2010, The specific role of inhibition in reading comprehension in good and poor comprehenders, J. Learn. Disabil., 43, 541, 10.1177/0022219410371676 Boucard, 2012, Impact of physical activity on executive functions in aging: a selective effect on inhibition among old adults, J. Sport Exerc. Psychol., 34, 808, 10.1123/jsep.34.6.808 Bransford, 1979, Some general constraints on learning and memory research, 331 Burke, 2010, Mindfulness-based approaches with children and adolescents: a preliminary review of current research in an emergent field, J. Child Fam. Stud., 19, 133, 10.1007/s10826-009-9282-x Bryck, 2012, Training the brain: practical applications of neural plasticity from the intersection of cognitive neuroscience, developmental psychology, and prevention science, Am. Psychol., 67, 87, 10.1037/a0024657 Cacioppo, 2008 Campbell, 2006, A magnetoencephalography investigation of neural correlates for social exclusion and self-control, Soc. Neurosci., 1, 124, 10.1080/17470910601035160 Carlson, 2001, Individual differences in inhibitory control and children's theory of mind, Child Dev., 72, 1032, 10.1111/1467-8624.00333 Carmack, 1999, Aerobic fitness and leisure physical activity as moderators of the stress-illness relation, Ann. Behav. Med., 21, 251, 10.1007/BF02884842 Carson, 2006, Long-term clinical and neuropsychological outcomes of West Nile virus infection, Clin. Infec. Dis., 43, 723, 10.1086/506939 Cerqueira, 2007, The prefrontal cortex as a key target of the maladaptive response to stress, J. Neurosci., 27, 2781, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4372-06.2007 Chaddock, 2011, A review of the relation of aerobic fitness and physical activity to brain structure and function in children, J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc., 17, 975, 10.1017/S1355617711000567 Chang, 2013, The impacts of coordinative exercise in executive function in kindergarten children: an ERP study, Exp. Brain Res., 225, 187, 10.1007/s00221-012-3360-9 Chen, 2015, Effects of aquatic exercise on sleep in older adults with mild sleep impairment: a randomized controlled trial, Int. J. Behav. Med., 2015 Clements, 2012 Colcombe, 2003, Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study, Psychol. Sci., 14, 125, 10.1111/1467-9280.t01-1-01430 Collins, 2012, Reasoning, learning, and creativity: frontal lobe function and human decision-making, PLoS Biol., 10, e1001293, 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001293 Crescioni, 2011, High trait self-control predicts positive health behaviors and success in weight loss, J. Health Psychol., 16, 750, 10.1177/1359105310390247 Davis, 2011, Exercise improves executive function and achievement and alters brain activation in overweight children: a randomized, controlled trial, Health Psychol., 30, 91, 10.1037/a0021766 Deci, 1999, A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation, Psychol. Bull., 125, 627, 10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627 de Jong, 2014, Effects of training working memory in adolescents with a below average IQ D’Esposito, 2015, The cognitive neuroscience of working memory, Ann. Rev. Psychol., 66, 115, 10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015031 Desseilles, 2009, Abnormal neural filtering of irrelevant visual information in depression, J. Neurosci., 29, 1395, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3341-08.2009 Diamond, 2000, Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex, Child Dev., 71, 44, 10.1111/1467-8624.00117 Diamond, 2007, Interrelated and interdependent, Dev. Sci., 10, 152, 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00578.x Diamond, 2010, The evidence base for improving school outcomes by addressing the whole child and by addressing skills and attitudes, not just content, Early Educ. Dev., 21, 780, 10.1080/10409289.2010.514522 Diamond, 2012, Activities and programs that improve children's executive functions, Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci., 21, 335, 10.1177/0963721412453722 Diamond, 2013, Executive functions, Ann. Rev. Psychol., 64, 135, 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 Diamond, 2014, Whether coordinative (soccer) exercise improves executive functioning in kindergarten children has yet to be demonstrated, Exp. Brain Res., 232, 1, 10.1007/s00221-014-3920-2 Diamond, 2014, Want to optimize executive functions and academic outcomes? Simple, just nourish the human spirit, Minn. Symp. Child Psychol., 37, 203 Diamond, 2007, Preschool program improves cognitive control, Science, 318, 1387, 10.1126/science.1151148 Diamond, 2011, Interventions and programs demonstrated to aid executive function development in children 4–12 years of age, Science, 333, 959, 10.1126/science.1204529 Diamond, A., Ling, D., (accepted). Fundamental questions surrounding efforts to improveexecutive functions (including working memory). In: Bunting, M., Novick, J., Dougherty, M., Engle, R.W. (Eds.), An Integrative Approach to Cognitive andWorking Memory Training: Perspectives from Psychology, Neuroscience, and Human Development. Oxford University Press, New York, NY. Dweck, 2002, Beliefs that make smart people dumb, 22 Dweck, 2006 Duckworth, 2005, Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents, Psychol. Sci., 16, 939, 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01641.x Duncan, 2007, School readiness and later achievement, Dev. Psychol., 43, 1428, 10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428 Eakin, 2004, The marital and family functioning of adults with ADHD and their spouses, J. Atten. Disord., 8, 1, 10.1177/108705470400800101 Eisenberg, 2010, Executive function, neural circuitry, and genetic mechanisms in schizophrenia, Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 258, 10.1038/npp.2009.111 Ericsson, 2006, The influence of experience and deliberate practice on the development of superior expert performance, 685 Ericsson, 2009, Discovering deliberate practice activities that overcome plateaus and limits on improvement of performance Ericsson, 2009, Toward a science of exceptional achievement: attaining superior performance through deliberate practice, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1172, 199, 10.1196/annals.1393.001 Ericsson, 2010, Expertise Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews, Cog. Sci., 1, 404 Erwin, 2012, Student academic performance outcomes of a classroom physical activity intervention: a pilot study, Int. Electron. J. Element. Educ., 5, 109 Etnier, 2006, A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance, Brain Res. Rev., 52, 119, 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.01.002 Etnier, 1997, The influence of physical fitness and exercise upon cognitive functioning: a meta-analysis, J. Sport Exerc. Psychol., 19, 249, 10.1123/jsep.19.3.249 Fabre, 2002, Improvement of cognitive function by mental and/or individualized aerobic training in healthy elderly subjects, Int. J. Sports Med., 23, 415, 10.1055/s-2002-33735 Farran, 2011, Is self regulation malleable? Results from an evaluation of the tools of the mind curriculum Fedewa, 2011, The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on children's achievement and cognitive outcomes: a meta-analysis, Res. Q. Exerc. Sport, 82, 521, 10.1080/02701367.2011.10599785 Fiebach, 2007, Inhibition and facilitation in visual word recognition: prefrontal contribution to the orthographic neighborhood size effect, NeuroImage, 36, 901, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.04.004 Flook, 2010, Effects of mindful awareness practices on executive functions in elementary school children, J. Appl. Sch. Psychol., 26, 70, 10.1080/15377900903379125 Gable, 2008, Approach-motivated positive affect reduces breadth of attention, Psychol. Sci., 19, 476, 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02112.x Gathercole, 2004, Working memory skills and educational attainment: evidence from National Curriculum assessments at 7 and 14 years of age, Appl. Cog. Psychol., 18, 1, 10.1002/acp.934 Gazzaley, 2012, Top-down modulation: bridging selective attention and working memory, Trends Cogn. Sci., 16, 129, 10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.014 Good, 2008, Problems in the pipeline: stereotype threat and women's achievement in high-level math courses, J. Appl. Dev. Psychol., 29, 17, 10.1016/j.appdev.2007.10.004 Greenberg, 2012, Nurturing mindfulness in children and youth: current state of research, Child Dev. Perspect., 6, 161, 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00215.x Harrison, 2013, Working memory training may increase working memory capacity but not fluid intelligence, Psychol. Sci., 24, 2409, 10.1177/0956797613492984 Haslacher, 2015, Physical exercise counteracts genetic susceptibility to depression, Neuropsychobiology, 71, 168, 10.1159/000381350 Heyman, 2012, Intense exercise increases circulating endocannabinoid and BDNF levels in humans: possible implications for reward and depression, Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37, 844, 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.09.017 Hill, 2010, Endogenous cannabinoid signaling is required for voluntary exercise-induced enhancement of progenitor cell proliferation in the hippocampus, Hippocampus, 20, 513 Hillman, 2005, Aerobic fitness and neurocognitive function in healthy preadolescent children, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 37, 1967, 10.1249/01.mss.0000176680.79702.ce Hillman, 2008, Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 9, 58, 10.1038/nrn2298 Hillman, 2014, Effects of the FITKids randomized controlled trial on executive control and brain function, Pediatrics, 134, e1063, 10.1542/peds.2013-3219 Hindin, 2012, Extended practice and aerobic exercise interventions benefit untrained cognitive outcomes in older adults: a meta-analysis, J. Am. Geriatr. Soc., 60, 136, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03761.x Hirt, 2008, I want to be creative: exploring the role of hedonic contingency theory in the positive mood-cognitive flexibility link, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 94, 214, 10.1037/0022-3514.94.2.94.2.214 Holmes, 2009, Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children, Dev. Sci., 12, F9, 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00848.x Holmes, 2010, Working memory deficits can be overcome: impacts of training and medication on working memory in children with ADHD, Appl. Cog. Psychol., 24, 827, 10.1002/acp.1589 Howard-Jones, 2014 Hughes, 1998, Understanding mind and emotion: longitudinal associations with mental-state talk between young friends, Dev. Psychol., 34, 1026, 10.1037/0012-1649.34.5.1026 Hughes, 2008, Does executive function matter for preschoolers’ problem behaviors?, J. Abnorm. Child Psychol., 36, 1, 10.1007/s10802-007-9107-6 Ikkai, 2011, Common neural mechanisms supporting spatial working memory, attention and motor intention, Neuropsychologia, 49, 1428, 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.12.020 Isen, 1987, Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 52, 1122, 10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1122 Isen, 1985, The influence of positive affect on the unusualness of word associations, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 48, 1413, 10.1037/0022-3514.48.6.1413 Jaeggi, 2008, Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 105, 6829, 10.1073/pnas.0801268105 Jeon, 2015, Expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, IGF-1 and cortisol elicited by regular aerobic exercise in adolescents, J. Phys. Ther. Sci., 27, 737, 10.1589/jpts.27.737 Jing, 2013, Altered arginine metabolism in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of maternal immune activation rat offspring, Schizophr.Res., 148, 151, 10.1016/j.schres.2013.06.001 Kamijo, 2011, The effects of an afterschool physical activity program on working memory in preadolescent children, Dev. Sci., 14, 1046, 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01054.x Kane, 2007, For whom the mind wanders, and when: an experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life, Psychol. Sci., 18, 614, 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01948.x Karbach, 2014, Making working memory work: a meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults, Psychol. Sci., 25, 2027, 10.1177/0956797614548725 Kerr, 1978, Specific and varied practice of motor skill, Percept. Mot. Skills, 46, 395, 10.1177/003151257804600201 Kibbe, 2011, Ten Years of TAKE 10!®: integrating physical activity with academic concepts in elementary school classrooms, Prev. Med., 52, S43, 10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.025 Kiesel, 2010, Control and interference in task switching—a review, Psychol. Bull., 136, 849, 10.1037/a0019842 Kimhy, 2015, The impact of aerobic exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurocognition in individuals with Schizophrenia: a single-blind, randomized clinical trial, Schizophr. Bull., 41, 859, 10.1093/schbul/sbv022 Klingberg, 2010, Training and plasticity of working memory, Trends Cogn. Sci., 14, 317, 10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002 Klingberg, 2005, Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD—a randomized, controlled trial, J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 44, 177, 10.1097/00004583-200502000-00010 Kovács, 2009, Cognitive gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 106, 6556, 10.1073/pnas.0811323106 Krafft, 2014, An 8-month randomized controlled exercise trial alters brain activation during cognitive tasks in overweight children, Obesity, 22, 232, 10.1002/oby.20518 Kramer, 2007, Capitalizing on cortical plasticity: influence of physical activity on cognition and brain function, Trends Cogn. Sci.s, 11, 342, 10.1016/j.tics.2007.06.009 Kubesch, 2009, Körperliches und kognitives training exekutiver funktionen in kindergarten und schule, Sportwissenschaft, 39, 309, 10.1007/s12662-009-0079-2 Kueider, 2012, Computerized cognitive training with older adults: a systematic review, PLoS ONE, 7, e40588, 10.1371/journal.pone.0040588 Labelle, 2015, Sleep deprivation impairs inhibitory control during wakefulness in adult sleepwalkers, J. Sleep Res. Lakes, 2004, Promoting self-regulation through school-based martial arts training, J. Appl. Dev. Psychol., 25, 283, 10.1016/j.appdev.2004.04.002 Leh, 2010, The neural circuitry of executive functions in healthy subjects and Parkinson's Disease, Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 70, 10.1038/npp.2009.88 Lepper, 1973, Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: a test of the “overjustification” hypothesis, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 28, 129, 10.1037/h0035519 Leslie, 1995, Career derailment: are you at risk? Any of nine fatal flaws can derail even the most successful executive, Healthcare Executive, 10, 6 Liston, 2009, Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 106, 912, 10.1073/pnas.0807041106 Liu-Ambrose, 2010, Resistance training and executive functions: a 12-month randomized controlled trial, Arch. Intern. Med., 170, 170, 10.1001/archinternmed.2009.494 Liu-Ambrose, 2012, Resistance training and functional plasticity of the aging brain: a 12-month randomized controlled trial, Neurobiol. Aging, 33, 1690, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.05.010 Lokken, 2009, Evidence of executive dysfunction in extremely obese adolescents: a pilot study, Surg. Obesity Related Dis., 5, 547, 10.1016/j.soard.2009.05.008 Loosli, 2012, Working memory training improves reading processes in typically developing children, Child Neuropsychol., 18, 62, 10.1080/09297049.2011.575772 Lunt, 2012, Prefrontal cortex dysfunction and ‘Jumping to Conclusions’: bias or deficit?, J. Neuropsychol., 6, 65, 10.1111/j.1748-6653.2011.02005.x MacLean, 2010, Intensive meditation training improves perceptual discrimination and sustained attention, Psychol. Sci., 21, 829, 10.1177/0956797610371339 Mahar, 2006, Effects of a classroom-based program on physical activity and on-task behavior, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 38, 2086, 10.1249/01.mss.0000235359.16685.a3 Manjunath, 2001, Improved performance in the Tower of London test following yoga, Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol., 45, 351 Masley, 2009, Aerobic exercise enhances cognitive flexibility, J. Clin. Psychol. Med. Sett., 16, 186, 10.1007/s10880-009-9159-6 McCarney, 2007, The Hawthorne Effect: a randomised, controlled trial, BMC Med. Res. Methodol., 7, 30, 10.1186/1471-2288-7-30 McClelland, 2007, Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers’ literacy, vocabulary, and math skills, Dev. Psychol., 43, 947, 10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.947 Melby-Lervåg, 2013, Is working memory training effective?. A meta-analytic review, Dev. Psychol., 49, 270, 10.1037/a0028228 Miller, 2011, Self-control and health outcomes in a nationally representative sample, Am. J. Health Behav., 35, 15, 10.5993/AJHB.35.1.2 Miyake, 2000, The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis, Cogn. Psychol., 41, 49, 10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Moffitt, 2011, A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 108, 2693, 10.1073/pnas.1010076108 Moffitt, 2012, Childhood self-control predicts adult health, wealth, and crime Monsell, 2003, Task switching, Trends Cogn. Sci., 7, 134, 10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7 Moody, 2009, Can intelligence be increased by training on a task of working memory?, Intelligence, 37, 327, 10.1016/j.intell.2009.04.005 Moreau, 2013, Cognitive enhancement: a comparative review of computerized and athletic training programs, Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol., 6, 155, 10.1080/1750984X.2012.758763 Moreau, 2014, The case for an ecological approach to cognitive training, Trends Cogn. Sci., 18, 334, 10.1016/j.tics.2014.03.009 Moreau, 2015, An ecological approach to cognitive enhancement: complex motor training, Acta Psychol., 157, 44, 10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.02.007 Morrison, 2011, Does working memory training work? The promise and challenges of enhancing cognition by training working memory, Psychon. Bull. Rev., 18, 46, 10.3758/s13423-010-0034-0 Morrison, 2010, Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school, 203 Moul, 1995, Physical activity and cognitive performance in the older population, J. Aging Phys. Activ., 3, 135, 10.1123/japa.3.2.135 Muraven, 2010, Building self-control strength: practicing self-control leads to improved self-control performance, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol., 46, 465, 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.12.011 Murphy, 2010, A culture of genius: how an organization's lay theories shape people's cognition, affect, and behavior, Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull., 36, 283, 10.1177/0146167209347380 Murray, 1990, The influence of mood on categorization: a cognitive flexibility interpretation, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 59, 411, 10.1037/0022-3514.59.3.411 Naseem, 2001, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in adults and obstructive sleep apnea, Am. Coll. Chest Phys., 119, 294 Nicholson, 2007, Beyond IQ: youngsters who can focus on the task at hand do better in math, Sci. Am. Nobre, 2011, Attention and short-term memory: crossroads, Neuropsychologia, 49, 1391, 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.04.014 Noice, 2004, A short-term intervention to enhance cognitive and affective functioning in older adults, J. Aging Health, 16, 562, 10.1177/0898264304265819 Orpen, 1974, The effect of expectations of managerial job performance: a four-year longitudinal study with South African business managers, J. Soc. Psychol., 93, 135, 10.1080/00224545.1974.9923138 Oswald, 2006, Differential effects of single versus combined cognitive and physical training with older adults: the SimA study in a 5-year perspective, Eur. J. Aging, 3, 179, 10.1007/s10433-006-0035-z Park, 2007, Improving cognitive function in older adults: nontraditional approaches, J. Gerontol., Ser. B: Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci., 62, 45, 10.1093/geronb/62.special_issue_1.45 Pesce, 2012, Shifting the focus from quantitative to qualitative exercise characteristics in exercise and cognition research, J. Sport Exerc. Psychol., 34, 766, 10.1123/jsep.34.6.766 Pesce, 2013, Searching for cognitively optimal challenge point in physical activity for children with typical and atypical motor development, Mental Health Phys. Activ., 6, 172, 10.1016/j.mhpa.2013.07.001 Prakash, 2015, Physical activity and cognitive vitality, Ann. Rev. Psychol., 66, 769, 10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015249 Rabipour, 2012, Training the brain: fact and fad in cognitive and behavioral remediation, Brain Cogn., 79, 159, 10.1016/j.bandc.2012.02.006 Raichlen, 2012, Wired to run: exercise-induced endocannabinoid signaling in humans and cursorial mammals with implications for the ‘runner's high’, J. Exp. Biol., 215, 1331, 10.1242/jeb.063677 Raver, 2011, CSRP's impact on low-income preschoolers’ preacademic skills: self-regulation as a mediating mechanism, Child Dev., 82, 362, 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01561.x Riccio, 2013, Interventions for executive function deficits in children and adolescents, Appl. Neuropsychol.: Child, 2, 133, 10.1080/21622965.2013.748383 Richmond, 2011, Working memory training and transfer in older adults, Psychol. Aging, 26, 813, 10.1037/a0023631 Rosenbaum, 2001, Acquisition of intellectual and perceptual-motor skills, Ann. Rev. Psychol., 52, 453, 10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.453 Roth, 1988, Stress and the mesocorticolimbic dopamine systems, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 537, 138, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1988.tb42102.x Rueda, 2012, Enhanced efficiency of the executive attention network after training in preschool children: immediate changes and effects after two months, Dev. Cogn. Neurosci., 2, S192, 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.09.004 Rueda, 2005, Training, maturation, and genetic influences on the development of executive attention, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 102, 14931, 10.1073/pnas.0506897102 Sabatier, 2015, Pathways mediating activity-induced enhancement of recovery from peripheral nerve injury, Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev., 43, 163, 10.1249/JES.0000000000000047 Sánchez, 2000, Distribution of corticosteroid receptors in the rhesus brain: relative absence of glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampal formation, J. Neurosci., 20, 4657, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-12-04657.2000 Saunamäki, 2007, A review of executive functions in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, Acta Neurol. Scand., 115, 1, 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2006.00744.x Savage, 2006, Cognitive processes in children's reading and attention: the role of working memory, divided attention, and response inhibition, Br. J. Psychol., 97, 365, 10.1348/000712605X81370 Schoofs, 2009, Cold pressor stress impairs performance on working memory tasks requiring executive functions in healthy young men, Behav. Neurosci., 123, 1066, 10.1037/a0016980 Scudder, 2014, Aerobic capacity and cognitive control in elementary school-age children\, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 46, 1025, 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000199 Sedlmeier, 2012, The psychological effects of meditation: a meta-analysis, Psychol. Bull., 138, 1139, 10.1037/a0028168 Shea, 1979, Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill, J. Exp. Psychol.: Hum. Learn. Mem., 5, 179 Shipstead, 2015, Working memory capacity and the scope and control of attention, Atten. Percept. Psychophys., 77, 1863, 10.3758/s13414-015-0899-0 Shipstead, 2012, Cogmed working memory training: does the evidence support the claims?, J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn., 1, 185, 10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.003 Sibley, 2003, The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta-analysis, Pediatr. Exerc. Sci., 15, 243, 10.1123/pes.15.3.243 Smiley-Oyen, 2008, Exercise, fitness, and neurocognitive function in older adults: the “selective improvement” and “cardiovascular fitness” hypotheses, Ann. Behav. Med., 36, 280, 10.1007/s12160-008-9064-5 Smith, 2010, Aerobic exercise and neurocognitive performance: a meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials, Psychosom. Med., 72, 239, 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181d14633 Smith, 2007, Maternal immune activation alters fetal brain development through interleukin-6, J. Neurosci., 27, 10695, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2178-07.2007 Smith, 1999, Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes, Science, 283, 1657, 10.1126/science.283.5408.1657 Smithrim, 2005, Learning through the arts: lessons of engagement, Can. J. Educ., 28, 109, 10.2307/1602156 Snowden, 2011, Effect of exercise on cognitive performance in community-dwelling older adults: review of intervention trials and recommendations for public health practices and research, J. Am. Geriatr. Soc., 59, 704, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03323.x Söderqvist, 2012, Computerized training of non-verbal reasoning and working memory in children with intellectual disability, Front. Hum. Neurosci., 6, 1 Spencer-Smith, 2015, Benefits of a working memory training program for inattention in daily life: a systematic review and meta-analysis, PLoS ONE, 10, e0119522, 10.1371/journal.pone.0119522 Spierer, 2013, Training-induced behavioural and brain plasticity in inhibitory control, Front. Hum. Neurosci., 7, 427, 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00427 Steele, 1998, How stereotypes influence the standardized test performance of talented African American students, 401 Stepankova, 2014, The malleability of working memory and visuospatial skills: a randomized controlled study in older adults, Dev. Psychol., 50, 1049, 10.1037/a0034913 Stothart, 2014, Is the effect of aerobic exercise on cognition a placebo effect?, PLoS ONE, 9, e109557, 10.1371/journal.pone.0109557 Streiner, 2009, The effects of exercise programs on cognition in older adults: a review, Clin. J. Sport Med., 19, 438, 10.1097/JSM.0b013e3181b9d86a Tangney, 2004, High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success, J. Pers., 72, 271, 10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x Thorell, 2009, Training and transfer effects of executive functions in preschool children, Dev. Sci., 12, 106, 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00745.x Tomporowski, 2008, Exercise and children's intelligence, cognition, and academic achievement, Educ. Psychol. Rev., 20, 111, 10.1007/s10648-007-9057-0 Tomporowski, 2015, Exercise and children's cognition: the role of exercise characteristics and a place for metacognition, J. Sport Health Sci., 4, 47, 10.1016/j.jshs.2014.09.003 Trulson, 1986, Martial arts training: a novel “cure” for juvenile delinquency, Hum. Relations, 39, 1131, 10.1177/001872678603901204 Tseng, 2011, The effectiveness of exercise on improving cognitive function in older people: a systematic review, J. Nurs. Res., 19, 119, 10.1097/JNR.0b013e3182198837 Tuckman, 1986, An experimental study of the physical and psychological effects of aerobic exercise on schoolchildren, Health Psychol., 5, 197, 10.1037/0278-6133.5.3.197 Twenge, 2002, Social exclusion causes self-defeating behavior, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 83, 606, 10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.606 Vandierendonck, 2010, Task switching: interplay of reconfiguration and interference control, Psychol. Bull., 136, 601, 10.1037/a0019791 van Uffelen, 2008, The effects of exercise on cognition in older adults with and without cognitive decline: a systematic review, Clin. J. Sport Med., 18, 486, 10.1097/JSM.0b013e3181845f0b Vazou, 2014, Moving and academic learning are not antagonists: acute effects on executive function and enjoyment, J. Sport Exerc. Psychol., 36, 474, 10.1123/jsep.2014-0035 Voelcker-Rehage, 2011, Cardiovascular and coordination training differentially improve cognitive performance and neural processing in older adults, Front. Hum. Neurosci., 5, 26, 10.3389/fnhum.2011.00026 von Bastian, 2013, Distinct transfer effects of training different facets of working memory capacity, J. Mem. Lang., 69, 36, 10.1016/j.jml.2013.02.002 von Hecker, 2005, Defocused attention in depressed mood: evidence from source monitoring, Emotion, 5, 456, 10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.456 Voss, 2013, Neurobiological markers of exercise-related brain plasticity in older adults, Brain Behav. Immun., 28, 90, 10.1016/j.bbi.2012.10.021 Voss, 2011, Exercise, brain, and cognition across the lifespan, J. Appl. Physiol., 111, 1505, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00210.2011 Vygotsky, 1986 Wachob, 2015, Brief report: influence of physical activity on sleep quality in children with Autism, J. Autism Dev. Disord., 45, 2641, 10.1007/s10803-015-2424-7 Wass, 2011, Training attentional control in infancy, Curr. Biol., 21, 1, 10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.004 Williams, 1997, Effects of group exercise on cognitive functioning and mood in older women, Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health, 21, 45, 10.1111/j.1467-842X.1997.tb01653.x Williamson, 2001, Mood change through physical exercise in nine-to ten-year-old children, Percept. Mot. Skills, 93, 311, 10.2466/pms.2001.93.1.311 Willis, 2006, Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 296, 2805, 10.1001/jama.296.23.2805 Wolf, 2010, Cannabinoid receptor CB1 mediates baseline and activity-induced survival of new neurons in adult hippocampal neurogenesis, Cell Commun. Signal., 8, 12, 10.1186/1478-811X-8-12 Yang, 2012, Exercise training improves sleep quality in middle-aged and older adults with sleep problems: a systematic review, J. Physiother., 58, 157, 10.1016/S1836-9553(12)70106-6 Ybarra, 2011, Friends (and sometimes enemies) with cognitive benefits: what types of social interactions boost cognitive functioning?, Soc. Psychol. Pers. Sci., 2, 253, 10.1177/1948550610386808 Youssef, 2011, Is obstructive sleep apnea associated with ADHD?, Ann. Clin. Psychiatry, 23, 213