Obesity and the role of adipose tissue in inflammation and metabolism

World Health Organization Fact sheet: obesity and overweight. Internet: http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/(accessed 3 January 2005). Mokdad, 2003, Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001, Jama, 289, 76, 10.1001/jama.289.1.76 Gavrilova, 2000, Surgical implantation of adipose tissue reverses diabetes in lipoatrophic mice, J Clin Invest, 105, 271, 10.1172/JCI7901 Shimomura, 1999, Leptin reverses insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus in mice with congenital lipodystrophy, Nature, 401, 73, 10.1038/43448 Fruebis, 2001, Proteolytic cleavage product of 30-kDa adipocyte complement-related protein increases fatty acid oxidation in muscle and causes weight loss in mice, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 98, 2005, 10.1073/pnas.98.4.2005 Yamauchi, 2001, The fat-derived hormone adiponectin reverses insulin resistance associated with both lipoatrophy and obesity, Nat Med, 7, 941, 10.1038/90984 Scherer, 1995, A novel serum protein similar to C1q, produced exclusively in adipocytes, J Biol Chem, 270, 26746, 10.1074/jbc.270.45.26746 Arita, 1999, Paradoxical decrease of an adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in obesity, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 257, 79, 10.1006/bbrc.1999.0255 Hotta, 2000, Plasma concentrations of a novel, adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in type 2 diabetic patients, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 20, 1595, 10.1161/01.ATV.20.6.1595 Hotta, 2001, Circulating concentrations of the adipocyte protein adiponectin are decreased in parallel with reduced insulin sensitivity during the progression to type 2 diabetes in rhesus monkeys, Diabetes, 50, 1126, 10.2337/diabetes.50.5.1126 Kondo, 2002, Association of Adiponectin Mutation with Type 2 Diabetes: A Candidate Gene for the Insulin Resistance Syndrome Diabetes., 51, 2325 Hara, 2002, Genetic variation in the gene encoding adiponectin is associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes in the Japanese population, Diabetes, 51, 536, 10.2337/diabetes.51.2.536 Takahashi, 2000, Genomic structure and mutations in adipose-specific gene, adiponectin, Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord, 24, 861, 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801244 Kissebah, 2000, Quantitative trait loci on chromosomes 3 and 17 influence phenotypes of the metabolic syndrome, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 97, 14478, 10.1073/pnas.97.26.14478 Ouchi, 1999, Novel modulator for endothelial adhesion molecules: adipocyte-derived plasma protein adiponectin, Circulation, 100, 2473, 10.1161/01.CIR.100.25.2473 Ouchi, 2001, Adipocyte-derived plasma protein, adiponectin, suppresses lipid accumulation and class A scavenger receptor expression in human monocyte-derived macrophages, Circulation, 103, 1057, 10.1161/01.CIR.103.8.1057 Okamoto, 2002, Adiponectin reduces atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice, Circulation, 106, 2767, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000042707.50032.19 Halaas, 1995, Weight-reducing effects of the plasma protein encoded by the obese gene, Science, 269, 543, 10.1126/science.7624777 Lee, 1996, Abnormal splicing of the leptin receptor in diabetic mice, Nature, 379, 632, 10.1038/379632a0 Maffei, 1995, Leptin levels in human and rodent: measurement of plasma leptin and ob RNA in obese and weight-reduced subjects, Nat Med, 1, 1155, 10.1038/nm1195-1155 Pelleymounter, 1995, Effects of the obese gene product on body weight regulation in ob/ob mice, Science, 269, 540, 10.1126/science.7624776 Chua, 1996, Phenotypes of mouse diabetes and rat fatty due to mutations in the OB (leptin) receptor, Science, 271, 994, 10.1126/science.271.5251.994 Montague, 1997, Congenital leptin deficiency is associated with severe early-onset obesity in humans, Nature, 387, 903, 10.1038/43185 Farooqi, 2001, Partial leptin deficiency and human adiposity, Nature, 414, 34, 10.1038/35102112 Clement, 1998, A mutation in the human leptin receptor gene causes obesity and pituitary dysfunction, Nature, 392, 398, 10.1038/32911 Farooqi, 2002, Beneficial effects of leptin on obesity, T cell hyporesponsiveness, and neuroendocrine/metabolic dysfunction of human congenital leptin deficiency, J Clin Invest, 110, 1093, 10.1172/JCI0215693 Farooqi, 1999, Effects of recombinant leptin therapy in a child with congenital leptin deficiency, N Engl J Med, 341, 879, 10.1056/NEJM199909163411204 Considine, 1996, Serum immunoreactive-leptin concentrations in normal-weight and obese humans, N Engl J Med, 334, 292, 10.1056/NEJM199602013340503 Munzberg, 2004, Region-specific leptin resistance within the hypothalamus of diet-induced obese mice, Endocrinology, 145, 4880, 10.1210/en.2004-0726 Oral, 2002, Leptin-replacement therapy for lipodystrophy, N Engl J Med, 346, 570, 10.1056/NEJMoa012437 Yamauchi, 2002, Adiponectin stimulates glucose utilization and fatty-acid oxidation by activating AMP-activated protein kinase, Nat Med, 8, 1288, 10.1038/nm788 Minokoshi, 2003, Role of AMP-activated protein kinase in leptin-induced fatty acid oxidation in muscle, Biochem Soc Trans, 31, 196, 10.1042/bst0310196 Ruderman, 2004, AMP kinase and malonyl-CoA: targets for therapy of the metabolic syndrome, Nat Rev Drug Discov, 3, 340, 10.1038/nrd1344 Horowitz, 2000, Whole body and abdominal lipolytic sensitivity to epinephrine is suppressed in upper body obese women, Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 278, E1144, 10.1152/ajpendo.2000.278.6.E1144 Horowitz, 1999, Effect of short-term fasting on lipid kinetics in lean and obese women, Am J Physiol, 276, E278 Shulman, 2000, Cellular mechanisms of insulin resistance, J Clin Invest, 106, 171, 10.1172/JCI10583 Zhang, 2003, Lipase-selective functional domains of perilipin A differentially regulate constitutive and protein kinase A-stimulated lipolysis, J Biol Chem, 278, 51535, 10.1074/jbc.M309591200 Wang, 2003, Perilipin expression in human adipose tissues: effects of severe obesity, gender, and depot, Obes Res, 11, 930, 10.1038/oby.2003.128 Hotamisligil, 1993, Adipose expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha: direct role in obesity-linked insulin resistance, Science, 259, 87, 10.1126/science.7678183 Vgontzas, 1997, Elevation of plasma cytokines in disorders of excessive daytime sleepiness: role of sleep disturbance and obesity, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 82, 1313, 10.1210/jcem.82.5.3950 Perreault, 2001, Targeted disruption of inducible nitric oxide synthase protects against obesity-linked insulin resistance in muscle, Nat Med, 7, 1138, 10.1038/nm1001-1138 Samad, 1997, Elevated expression of transforming growth factor-beta in adipose tissue from obese mice, Mol Med, 3, 37, 10.1007/BF03401666 Visser, 1999, Elevated C-reactive protein levels in overweight and obese adults, Jama, 282, 2131, 10.1001/jama.282.22.2131 Weyer, 2002, Humoral markers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in relation to adiposity and in vivo insulin action in Pima Indians, Atherosclerosis, 161, 233, 10.1016/S0021-9150(01)00626-8 Sartipy, 2003, Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 in obesity and insulin resistance, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 100, 7265, 10.1073/pnas.1133870100 Samad, 1996, Distribution and regulation of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in murine adipose tissue in vivo. Induction by tumor necrosis factor-alpha and lipopolysaccharide, J Clin Invest, 97, 37, 10.1172/JCI118404 Samad, 1998, Tissue factor gene expression in the adipose tissues of obese mice, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 95, 7591, 10.1073/pnas.95.13.7591 De Pergola, 2002, Coagulation and fibrinolysis abnormalities in obesity, J Endocrinol Invest, 25, 899, 10.1007/BF03344054 Fried, 1998, Omental and subcutaneous adipose tissues of obese subjects release interleukin-6: depot difference and regulation by glucocorticoid, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 83, 847 Weisberg, 2003, Obesity is associated with macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue, J Clin Invest, 112, 1796, 10.1172/JCI200319246 Xu, 2003, Chronic inflammation in fat plays a crucial role in the development of obesity-related insulin resistance, J Clin Invest, 112, 1821, 10.1172/JCI200319451 Cinti, 2005, Adipocyte death defines macrophage localization and function in adipose tissue of obese mice and humans, J Lipid Res, 46, 2347, 10.1194/jlr.M500294-JLR200 Bruun, 2003, Regulation of adiponectin by adipose tissue-derived cytokines: in vivo and in vitro investigations in humans, Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 285, E527, 10.1152/ajpendo.00110.2003 Hotamisligil, 1994, Tumor necrosis factor alpha: a key component of the obesity-diabetes link, Diabetes, 43, 1271, 10.2337/diab.43.11.1271 Kern, 2001, Adipose tissue tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-6 expression in human obesity and insulin resistance, Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 280, E745, 10.1152/ajpendo.2001.280.5.E745 Zhang, 2002, Tumor necrosis factor-alpha stimulates lipolysis in differentiated human adipocytes through activation of extracellular signal-related kinase and elevation of intracellular cAMP, Diabetes, 51, 2929, 10.2337/diabetes.51.10.2929 Souza, 2003, TNF-alpha induction of lipolysis is mediated through activation of the extracellular signal related kinase pathway in 3T3–L1 adipocytes, J Cell Biochem, 89, 1077, 10.1002/jcb.10565 Mohamed-Ali, 1997, Subcutaneous adipose tissue releases interleukin-6, but not tumor necrosis factor-alpha, in vivo, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 82, 4196 van Hall, 2003, Interleukin-6 stimulates lipolysis and fat oxidation in humans, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 88, 3005, 10.1210/jc.2002-021687 Klover, 2003, Chronic exposure to interleukin-6 causes hepatic insulin resistance in mice, Diabetes, 52, 2784, 10.2337/diabetes.52.11.2784 Pradhan, 2001, C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus, Jama, 286, 327, 10.1001/jama.286.3.327 Ridker, 2000, Plasma concentration of interleukin-6 and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men, Circulation, 101, 1767, 10.1161/01.CIR.101.15.1767 Wake, 2004, 11-beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in obesity and the metabolic syndrome, Mol Cell Endocrinol, 215, 45, 10.1016/j.mce.2003.11.015 Masuzaki, 2001, A transgenic model of visceral obesity and the metabolic syndrome, Science, 294, 2166, 10.1126/science.1066285 Spiegelman, 1998, PPAR-gamma: adipogenic regulator and thiazolidinedione receptor, Diabetes, 47, 507, 10.2337/diabetes.47.4.507 Kallen, 1996, Antidiabetic thiazolidinediones inhibit leptin (ob) gene expression in 3T3–L1 adipocytes, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 93, 5793, 10.1073/pnas.93.12.5793 Greenberg, 2003, The expanding scope of the metabolic syndrome and implications for the management of cardiovascular risk in type 2 diabetes with particular focus on the emerging role of the thiazolidinediones, J Diabetes Complications, 17, 218, 10.1016/S1056-8727(03)00002-3 Fryer, 2002, The anti-diabetic drugs rosiglitazone and metformin stimulate AMP-activated protein kinase through distinct signaling pathways, J Biol Chem, 277, 25226, 10.1074/jbc.M202489200 Tiikkainen, 2004, Effects of rosiglitazone and metformin on liver fat content, hepatic insulin resistance, insulin clearance, and gene expression in adipose tissue in patients with type 2 diabetes, Diabetes, 53, 2169, 10.2337/diabetes.53.8.2169