Toward Relational Empowerment

Alinsky, S. (1971). Rules for radicals: A pragmatic primer for realistic radicals. New York: Vintage. Altman, I., & Rogoff, B. (1987). World views in psychology: Trait, interactional, organismic, and transactional perspectives. In D. Stokols & I. Altman (Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology (pp. 7–40). New York: Wiley. Bellah, R. N., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W. M., Swidler, A., & Tipton, S. M. (1985). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in American life (2008 reprint). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Bollen, K. A. (2002). Latent variables in psychology and the social sciences. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 605–634. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135239. Borgatti, S. P., Mehra, A., Brass, D. J., & Labianca, G. (2009). Network analysis in the social sciences. Science, 323, 892–895. doi:10.1126/science.1165821. Burt, R. S. (2001). Structural holes versus network closure as social capital. In N. Lin, K. Cook, & R. S. Burt (Eds.), Social capital: Theory and research (pp. 31–56). Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Cargo, M., Grams, G. D., Ottoson, J. M., Ward, P., & Green, L. W. (2003). Empowerment as fostering positive youth development and citizenship. American Journal of Health Behaviour, 27(Supplement 1), 66–79. Carli, L. L., & Eagly, A. H. (2001). Gender, hierarchy, and leadership: An introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 629–636. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00232. Carpendale, J. I. M., & Racine, T. P. (2011). Intersubjectivity and egocentrism: Insights from the relational perspectives of Piaget, Mead, and Wittgenstein. New Ideas in Psychology, 29, 346–354. doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2010.03.005. Chetkovich, C., & Kunreuther, F. (2006). From the ground up: Grassroots organizations making social change. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2007). The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(4), 370–379. Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2008). The collective dynamics of smoking in a large social network. The New England Journal of Medicine, 358(21), 2249–2258. Christens, B. D. (2010). Public relationship building in grassroots community organizing: Relational intervention for individual and systems change. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(7), 886–900. doi:10.1002/jcop.20403. Christens, B. D., & Dolan, T. (2011). Interweaving youth development, community development, and social change through youth organizing. Youth & Society, 43(2), 528–548. doi:10.1177/0044118X10383647. Christens, B. D., Hanlin, C. E., & Speer, P. W. (2007). Getting the social organism thinking: Strategy for systems change. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39(3–4), 229–238. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9119-y. Christens, B. D., Peterson, N. A., & Speer, P. W. (2011a). Community participation and psychological empowerment: Testing reciprocal causality using a cross-lagged panel design and latent constructs. Health Education & Behavior, 38(4), 589–598. doi:10.1177/1090198110372880. Christens, B. D., & Speer, P. W. (2011). Contextual influences on participation in community organizing: A multilevel longitudinal study. American Journal of Community Psychology, 47(3–4), 253–263. doi:10.1007/s10464-010-9393-y. Christens, B. D., Speer, P. W., & Peterson, N. A. (2011b). Social class as moderator of the relationship between (dis)empowering processes and psychological empowerment. Journal of Community Psychology, 39(2), 170–182. doi:10.1002/jcop.20425. Coffé, H., & Geys, B. (2007). Toward an empirical characterization of bridging and bonding social capital. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 36(1), 121–139. doi:10.1177/0899764006293181. Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120. Comstock, D. L., Hammer, T. R., Strentzsch, J., Cannon, K., Parsons, J., & Salazar, G. (2008). Relational-cultural theory: A framework for bridging relational, multicultural, and social justice competencies. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(June), 279–287. Crowe, J. (2010). Community attachment and satisfaction: The role of a community's social network structure. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(5), 622–644. doi:10.1002/jcop.20387. DeFilippis, J. (2001). The myth of social capital in community development. Housing Policy Debate, 12(4), 781–806. doi:10.1080/10511482.2001.9521429. Diani, M., & McAdam, D. (Eds.). (2003). Social movements and networks: Relational approaches to collective action. New York: Oxford University Press. Dworski-Riggs, D., & Langhout, R. D. (2010). Elucidating the power in empowerment and the participation in participatory action research: A story about research team and elementary school change. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45, 215–230. doi:10.1007/s10464-010-9306-0. Emirbayer, M. (1997). Manifesto for a relational sociology. American Journal of Sociology, 103(2), 281–317. Evans, S. D. (2011). Community leadership (unpublished position paper). Retrieved from: http://www.bus.miami.edu/_assets/files/executive-education/leadership-institute/Evans%20position%20paper%20_Community%20Leadership2.pdf. Fanon, F. (1963). The wretched of the earth. New York: Grove Press. Farr, J. (2004). Social capital: A conceptual history. Political Theory, 32(1), 6–33. doi:10.1177/0090591703254978. Fedi, A., Mannarini, T., & Maton, K. I. (2009). Empowering community settings and community mobilization. Community Development, 40(3), 275–291. doi:10.1080/15575330903109985. Fogel, A. (1993). Developing through relationships: Origins of communication, self, and culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Foster-Fishman, P. G., Cantillon, D., Pierce, S. J., & Van Egeren, L. A. (2007). Building an active citizenry: The role of neighborhood problems, readiness, and capacity for change. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39(1), 91–106. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9097-0. Foucault, M. (1982). The subject and power. Critical Inquiry, 8(4), 777–795. Fowler, J. H., & Christakis, N. A. (2009). Dynamic spread of happiness in a large social network: Longitudinal analysis over 20 years in the Framingham Heart Study. British Medical Journal, 338, 23–36. doi:10.1136/bmj.a2338. Gergen, K. J. (1994). Realities and relationships: Soundings in social construction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gergen, K. J. (2009). Relational being: Beyond self and community. New York: Oxford University Press. Gillespie, A., & Cornish, F. (2010). Intersubjectivity: Towards a dialogical analysis. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 40(1), 19–46. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5914.2009.00419.x. Ginwright, S. (2007). Black youth activism and the role of critical social capital in black community organizations. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(3), 403–418. doi:10.1177/0002764207306068. Grabe, S. (2011). An empirical examination of women’s empowerment and transformative change in the context of international development. American Journal of Community Psychology. doi:10.1007/s10464-011-9453-y. Granovetter, M. (1973). The strength of weak ties. The American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360–1380. Groves, L. C., & Hinton, R. B. (2004). Inclusive aid: Changing power and relationships in international development. London: Earthscan. Gruber, J., & Trickett, E. J. (1987). Can we empower others? The paradox of empowerment in an alternative public high school. American Journal of Community Psychology, 15, 353–372. doi:10.1007/BF00922703. Gutierrez, L. M. (1995). Understanding the empowerment process: Does consciousness make a difference? Social Work Research, 19(4), 229–237. Hughey, J., Peterson, N. A., Lowe, J. B., & Oprescu, F. (2008). Empowerment and sense of community: Clarifying their relationship in community organizations. Health Education & Behavior, 35(5), 651–663. doi:10.1177/1090198106294896. Hughey, J., & Speer, P. W. (2002). Community, sense of community, and networks. In A. T. Fisher, C. Sonn, & B. Bishop (Eds.), Psychological sense of community: Research, applications, and implications (pp. 69–84). New York: Kluwer/Plenum. Hughey, J., Speer, P. W., & Peterson, N. A. (1999). Sense of community in community organizations: Structure and evidence of validity. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(1), 97–113. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(199901)27:1<97::AID-JCOP7>3.0.CO;2-K. Israel, B. A., Checkoway, B., Schulz, A., & Zimmerman, M. (1994). Health education and community empowerment: Conceptualizing and measuring perceptions of individual, organizational, and community control. Health Education Quarterly, 21(2), 149–170. doi:10.1177/109019819402100203. Itzhaky, H., & York, A. S. (2000). Empowerment and community participation: Does gender make a difference? Social Work Research, 24(4), 225–234. Kadushin, C. (2004). Too much investment in social capital? Social Networks, 26, 75–90. doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2004.01.009. Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self: Problem and process in human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kieffer, C. H. (1984). Citizen empowerment: A developmental perspective. In J. Rappaport, C. Swift, & R. Hess (Eds.), Studies in empowerment: Steps toward understanding and action (pp. 9–36). New York: The Haworth Press. Kim, S., Crutchfield, C., Williams, C., & Hepler, N. (1998). Toward a new paradigm in substance abuse and other problem behavior prevention for youth: Youth development and empowerment approach. Journal of Drug Education, 28(1), 1–17. doi:10.2190/5ET9-X1C2-Q17B-2G6D. Kirshner, B. (2008). Guided participation in three youth activism organizations: Facilitation, apprenticeship, and joint work. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 17(1), 60–101. doi:10.1080/10508400701793190. Kitzinger, C. (1991). Feminism, psychology and the paradox of power. Feminism & Psychology, 1(1), 111–129. doi:10.1177/0959353591011016. Krackhardt, D. (1992). The strength of strong ties: The importance of philos in organizations. In N. Nohria & R. G. Eccles (Eds.), Networks and organizations: Structure, form, and action (pp. 216–239). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Kunreuther, F., Kim, H., & Rodriguez, R. (2009). Working across generations: Defining the future of nonprofit leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Laverack, G. (2006). Using a ‘domains’ approach to build community empowerment. Community Development Journal, 41(1), 4–12. doi:10.1093/cdj/bsi038. Lucal, B. (1996). Oppression and privilege: Toward a relational conceptualization of race. Teaching Sociology, 24(3), 245–255. Luke, D. A. (2005). Getting the big picture in community science: Methods that capture context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 35(3/4), 185–200. doi:10.1007/s10464-005-3397-z. Luke, D. A., Rappaport, J., & Seidman, E. (1991). Setting phenotypes in a mutual help organization: Expanding behavior setting theory. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19(1), 147–167. doi:10.1007/BF00942263. Lukes, S. (1974). Power: A radical view. London: Macmillan. Mankowski, E. S., & Maton, K. I. (2010). A community psychology of men and masculinity: Historical and conceptual review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45(1), 73–86. doi:10.1007/s10464-009-9288-y. Maton, K. I. (2008). Empowering community settings: Agents of individual development, community betterment, and positive social change. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 4–21. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9148-6. Maton, K. I., & Rappaport, J. (1984). Empowerment in a religious setting: A multivariate investigation. In J. Rappaport, C. Swift, & R. Hess (Eds.), Studies in empowerment: Steps toward understanding and action (pp. 37–72). New York: The Haworth Press. Maton, K. I., & Salem, D. A. (1995). Organizational characteristics of empowering community settings: A multiple case study approach. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23(5), 631–656. doi:10.1007/BF02506985. Mattis, J. S., & Jagers, R. J. (2001). A relational framework for the study of religiosity and spirituality in the lives of African Americans. Journal of Community Psychology, 29(5), 519–539. doi:10.1002/jcop.1034. McMillan, D. W., & Chavis, D. M. (1986). Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6–23. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(198601)14:1<6:AID-JCOP2290140103>3.0.CO;2-I. Miller, J. B. (1984). The development of women’s sense of self (Work in Progress). Wellesley, MA: Stone Center, Wellesley College. Miller, P. M. (2011). Homeless families’ education networks: An examination of access and mobilization. Educational Administration Quarterly. Published online ahead of print as doi:10.1177/0013161X11401615. Neal, J. W. (2009). Network ties and mean lies: A relational approach to relational aggression. Journal of Community Psychology, 37(6), 737–753. doi:10.1002/jcop.20328. Neal, J. W., & Neal, Z. P. (2011). Power as a structural phenomenon. American Journal of Community Psychology, 48(3-4), 157–167. doi:10.1007/s10464-010-9356-3. Noy, D. (2008). Power mapping: Enhancing sociological knowledge by developing generalizable analytical public tools. The American Sociologist, 39(1), 3–18. doi:10.1007/s12108-008-9030-5. Ospina, S., & Foldy, E. (2010). Building bridges from the margins: The work of leadership in social change organizations. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(2), 292–307. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.01.008. Perkins, D. D. (2010). Empowerment. In R. Couto (Ed.), Political and civic leadership (pp. 207–218). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Perkins, D. D., Florin, P., Rich, R. C., Wandersman, A., & Chavis, D. (1990). Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(1), 83–115. doi:10.1007/BF00922690. Perkins, D. D., Hughey, J., & Speer, P. W. (2002). Community psychology perspectives on social capital theory and community development practice. Journal of the Community Development Society, 33(1), 1–22. doi:10.1080/15575330209490141. Perkins, D. D., & Long, D. A. (2002). Neighborhood sense of community and social capital: A multi-level analysis. In C. Sonn & B. Bishop (Eds.), Psychological sense of community: Research, applications, and implications (pp. 291–318). New York: Plenum. Peterson, N. A., Hamme, C. L., & Speer, P. W. (2002). Cognitive empowerment of African Americans and Caucasians: Differences in understandings of power, political functioning, and shaping ideology. Journal of Black Studies, 32(3), 336–351. doi:10.1177/002193470203200304. Peterson, N. A., Lowe, J. B., Hughey, J., Reid, R. J., Zimmerman, M. A., & Speer, P. W. (2006). Measuring the intrapersonal component of psychological empowerment: Confirmatory factor analysis of the sociopolitical control scale. American Journal of Community Psychology, 38(3–4), 287–297. doi:10.1007/s10464-006-9070-3. Peterson, N. A., Peterson, C. H., Agre, L., Christens, B. D., & Morton, C. M. (2011). Measuring youth empowerment: Validation of a sociopolitical control scale for youth in an urban community context. Journal of Community Psychology, 39(5), 592–605. doi:10.1002/jcop.20456. Peterson, N. A., & Reid, R. J. (2003). Paths to psychological empowerment in an urban community: Sense of community and citizen participation in substance abuse prevention activities. Journal of Community Psychology, 31(1), 25–38. doi:10.1002/jcop.10034. Peterson, N. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Beyond the individual: Toward a nomological network of organizational empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 34(1/2), 129–145. doi:10.1023/B:AJCP.0000040151.77047.58. Pigg, K. E. (2002). Three faces of empowerment: Expanding the theory of empowerment in community development. Journal of the Community Development Society, 33(1), 107–123. doi:10.1080/15575330209490145. Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 1–24. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.1. Preskill, S., & Brookfield, S. D. (2009). Learning as a way of leading: Lessons from the struggle for social justice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Prilleltensky, I. (1994). The morals and politics of psychology: Psychological discourse and the status quo. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Prilleltensky, I. (2008). The role of power in wellness, oppression, and liberation: The promise of psychopolitical validity. Journal of Community Psychology, 36(2), 116–136. doi:10.1002/jcop.20225. Putnam, R. D. (1995). Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital. Journal of Democracy, 6, 65–78. Rappaport, J. (1981). In praise of paradox: A social policy of empowerment over prevention. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9(1), 1–25. doi:10.1007/BF00919275. Rappaport, J. (1987). Terms of empowerment/exemplars of prevention: Toward a theory for community psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 15(2), 121–148. doi:10.1007/BF00919275. Riger, S. (1993). What’s wrong with empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 21(3), 279–292. doi:10.1007/BF00941504. Russell, S. T., Muraco, A., Subramaniam, A., & Laub, C. (2009). Youth empowerment and high school gay-straight alliances. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(7), 891–903. doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9382-8. Saegert, S., Thompson, J. P., & Warren, M. R. (Eds.). (2001). Social capital and poor communities. New York: Russell Sage. Sarason, S. B. (1974). The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Sarason, S. B. (1976). Community psychology, networks, and Mr. Everyman. American Psychologist, 31(5), 317–328. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.31.5.317. Schulz, A. J., Israel, B. A., Zimmerman, M. A., & Checkoway, B. N. (1995). Empowerment as a multi-level construct: Perceived control at the individual, organizational and community levels. Health Education Research, 10(3), 309–327. doi:10.1093/her/10.3.309. Shinn, M., Lehmann, S., & Wong, N. W. (1984). Social interaction and social support. Journal of Social Issues, 40(4), 55–76. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1984.tb01107.x. Sonn, C. C., & Fisher, A. T. (1998). Sense of community: Community resilient responses to oppression and change. Journal of Community Psychology, 26(5), 457–472. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(199809)26:5<457:AID-JCOP5>3.0.CO;2-O. Speer, P. W. (2000). Intrapersonal and interactional empowerment: Implications for theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 28(1), 51–61. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(200001)28:1<51:AID-JCOP6>3.0.CO;2-6. Speer, P. W. (2008). Social power and forms of change: Implications for psychopolitical validity. Journal of Community Psychology, 36(2), 199–213. doi:10.1002/jcop.20231. Speer, P. W., & Hughey, J. (1995). Community organizing: An ecological route to empowerment and power. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23(5), 729–748. doi:10.1007/BF02506989. Speer, P. W., & Hughey, J. (1996). Mechanisms of empowerment: Psychological processes for members of power-based community organizations. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 6(3), 177–187. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1298(199608)6:3<177:AID-CASP368>3.0.CO;2-N. Speer, P. W., Hughey, J., Gensheimer, L. K., & Adams-Leavitt, W. (1995). Organizing for power: A comparative case study. Journal of Community Psychology, 23(1), 57–73. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(199501)23:1<57:AID-JCOP2290230106>3.0.CO;2-9. Speer, P. W., Jackson, C. B., & Peterson, N. A. (2001). The relationship between social cohesion and empowerment: Support and new implications for theory. Health Education & Behavior, 28(6), 716–732. doi:10.1177/109019810102800605. Speer, P. W., & Peterson, N. A. (2000). Psychometric properties of an empowerment scale: Testing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral domains. Social Work Research, 24(2), 109–118. Surrey, J. L. (1987). Relationships and empowerment (Work in Progress). Wellesley, MA: Stone Center, Wellesley College. Turró, C., & Krause, M. (2009). Beyond survival: Tracing individual empowerment processes in a poor Chilean settlement. Journal of Community Psychology, 37(3), 381–403. doi:10.1002/jcop.20302. Unger, D. G., & Wandersman, A. (1985). The importance of neighbors: The social, cognitive, and affective components of neighboring. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13(2), 139–169. doi:10.1007/BF00905726. VanderPlaat, M. (1999). Locating the feminist scholar: Relational empowerment and social activism. Qualitative Health Research, 9(6), 773. doi:10.1177/104973299129122270. Wang, Q., Chen, X., & Chen, Y. (2011). Development of a scale to measure residents’ psychological empowerment in Chinese urban community. Journal of Community Psychology, 39(2), 202–211. doi:10.1002/jcop.20427. Watkins, N. D., Larson, R. W., & Sullivan, P. J. (2007). Bridging intergroup difference in a community youth program. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(3), 380–402. doi:10.1177/0002764207306066. Watts, R. J., Diemer, M. A., & Voight, A. (2011). Critical consciousness: Current status and future directions. In C. A. Flanagan & B. D. Christens (Eds.), Youth civic development: Work at the cutting edge. New directions for child and adolescent development (Vol. 134, pp. 43–57). doi:10.1002/cd.310. Watts, R. J., Williams, N. C., & Jagers, R. J. (2003). Sociopolitical development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31(1/2), 185–194. doi:10.1023/A:1023091024140. Wilke, L. A., & Speer, P. W. (2011). The mediating influence of organizational characteristics in the relationship between organizational type and relational power: An extension of psychological empowerment research. Journal of Community Psychology, 39(8), 972–986. doi:10.1002/jcop.20484. Wilkinson, D. (2007). The multidimensional nature of social cohesion: Psychological sense of community, attraction, and neighboring. American Journal of Community Psychology, 40(3), 214–229. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9140-1. Zeldin, S. (2004). Youth as agents of adult and community development: Mapping the processes and outcomes of youth engaged in organizational governance. Applied Developmental Science, 8(2), 75–90. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0802_2. Zeldin, S., Larson, R., Camino, L., & O’Connor, C. (2005). Intergenerational relationships and partnerships in community programs: Purpose, practice, and directions for research. Journal of Community Psychology, 33(1), 1–10. doi:10.1002/jcop.20042. Zimmerman, M. A. (1990). Taking aim on empowerment research: On the distinction between individual and psychological conceptions. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(1), 169–177. doi:10.1007/BF00922695. Zimmerman, M. A. (1995). Psychological empowerment: Issues and illustrations. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23(5), 581–599. doi:10.1007/BF02506983. Zimmerman, M. A. (2000). Empowerment theory: Psychological, organizational and community levels of analysis. In E. Seidman & J. Rappaport (Eds.), Handbook of community psychology (pp. 43–63). New York: Kluwer/Plenum. Zimmerman, M. A., Israel, B. A., Schulz, A., & Checkoway, B. N. (1992). Further explorations in empowerment theory: An empirical analysis of psychological empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20(6), 707–727. doi:10.1007/BF01312604. Zimmerman, M. A., & Zahniser, J. H. (1991). Refinements of sphere-specific measures of perceived control: Development of a sociopolitical control scale. Journal of Community Psychology, 19(2), 189–204. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(199104)19:2<189:AID-JCOP2290190210>3.0.CO;2-6.