Mechanotransduction determines the structure and function of lung and bone

Baldwin, J. M. (1896) A new factor in evolution. Am. Nat. 30, 441–451, 536–553. Hu, E., Tontonoz, P., and Spiegelman, B. M. (1995) Transdifferentiation of myoblasts by the adipogenic transcription factors PPARgamma gamma and C/EBP alpha. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 9856–9860. Muratore, C. S., Nguyen, H. T., Ziegler, M. M., et al. (2000) Stretch-induced upregulation of VEGF gene expression in murine pulmonary culture: a role for angiogenesis in lung development. J. Pediatr. Surg. 35, 906–912. Imai, K., Komune, H., Toda, C., et al. (2002) Cranial remodeling to treat craniosynostosis by gradual distraction using a new device. J. Neurosurg. 96, 654–659. Torday, J. S., DeMayo, F., Minoo, P., et al. (2002) Mesenchymal-epithelial interactions in lung development and repair: are modeling and remodeling one and the same? Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 283, L510-L517. Nomura, S. and Takano-Yamamoto, T. (2000) Molecular events caused by mechanical stress in bone. Matrix Biol. 19, 91–96. Torday, J. S. (2003) Parathyroid hormone-related protein is a gravisensor in lung and bone cell biology. Adv. Space Res., in press. Vandenburgh, H. H. (1992) Mechanical forces and their second messengers in stimulating cell growth in vitro. Am. J. Physiol. 262, R350-R355. Alcorn, D., Adamson, T. M., Lambert, T. F., et al. (1977) Morphological effects of chronic tracheal ligation and drainage in the fetal lamb lung. J. Anat. 123, 649–660. Liu, M. and Post, M. (2000) Invited review: mechanochemical signal transduction in the fetal lung. J. Appl. Physiol. 89, 2078–2084. Frank, L., Price, L. T., and Whitney, P. L. (1996) Possible mechanism for late gestational development of the antioxidant enzymes in the fetal rat lung. Biol. Neonate 70, 116–127. Pinkerton, K. E., Ikegami, M., Dillard, L. M., et al. (2000) Surfactant treatment effects on lung structure and type II cells of preterm ventilated lambs. Biol Neonate 77, 243–252. Torday, J. S., Sanchez-Esteban, J., and Rubin, L. P. (1998) Paracrine mediators of mechanotransduction in lung development. Am. J. Med. Sci. 316, 205–208. Rubin, L. P., Kifor, O., Hua, J., et al. (1994) Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-related protein stimulate surfactant phospholipid synthesis in rat fetal lung, apparently by a mesenchymal-epithelial mechanism. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1223, 91–100. Sanchez-Esteban, J., Tsai, S. W., Sang, J., et al. (1998) Effects of mechanical forces on lung-specific gene expression. Am. J. Med. Sci. 316, 200–204. Rubin, L. P. and Torday, J. S. (2000) Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) biology in fetal lung development, in Endocrinology of the Lung. Humana, Totowa, NJ, pp. 269–297. Karaplis, A. C. (2001) PTHrP: novel roles in skeletal biology. Curr. Pharm. Des. 7, 655–670. Giangregorio, L. and Blimkie, C. J. (2002) Skeletal adaptations to alterations in weightbearing activity: a comparison of models of disuse osteoporosis. Sports Med. 32, 459–476. Parin, V. V. and Gazenko, O. G. (1963) Soviet experiments aimed at investigating the influence of space flight factors on the physiology of animals and man. Life Sci. Space Res. 1, 113–127. Riggins, R. S. and Chacko, K. A. (1977) The effect of increased gravitational stress on bone. Life Sci. Space Res. 15, 263–265. Boyden, E. A. (1977) Development and growth of the airways, in Development of the Lung Hodson, W. A., ed. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 3–35. Dunnill, M. S. (1962) Postnatal lung growth. Thorax 17, 329–333. Weibel, E. R. (1973) Morphological basis of alveolar-capillary gas exchange. Physioll Rev. 53, 163–202. Villee, C. A. (1963) Human lung evolution, in Biology. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, p. 292. O'Reilly, M. A., Stripp, B. R., and Pryhuber, G. S. (1997) Epithelial-mesenchymal interactions in the alteration of gene expression and morphology following lung injury. Microsc. Res. Tech. 38, 473–479. Strang, L. B. (1989) Solute and water transport across the pulmonary epithelium: a new chapter in lung physiology inaugurated by Alfred Jost. Biol. Neonate 55, 355–365. Liggins, G. C. and Kitterman, J. A. (1981) Development of the fetal lung. Ciba Found. Symp. 86, 308–330. Moessinger, A. C., Harding, R., Adamson, T. M., et al. (1990) Role of lung fluid volume in growth and maturation of the fetal sheep lung. J. Clin. Invest. 86, 1270–1277. Luks, F. I., Roggin, K. K., Wild, Y. K., et al. (2001) Effect of lung fluid composition on type II cellular activity after tracheal occlusion in the fetal lamb. J. Pediatr. Surg. 36, 196–201. Faridy, E. E., Permutt, S., and Riley, R. L. (1966) Effect of ventilation on surface forces in excised dogs' lungs. J. Appl. Physiol. 21, 1453–1462. Wyszogrodski, I., Taeusch, H. W., Jr., Kyei-Aboagye, K., et al. (1975) Mechanical regulation of alveolar surfactant in adult cats: the effects of hyperventilation and end-expiratory pressure in vivo. Chest 67, 15S-16S. Oyarzun, M. J. and Clements, J. A. (1977) Ventilatory and cholinergic control of pulmonary surfactant in the rabbit. J. Appl. Physiol. 43, 39–45. Wirtz, H. R. and Dobbs, L. G. (1990) Calcium mobilization and exocytosis after one mechanical stretch of lung epithelial cells. Science 250, 1266–1269. Nobuhara, K. K. and Wilson, J. M. (1996) The effect of mechanical forces on in utero lung growth in congenital diaphragmatic hernia. Clin. Perinatol. 23, 741–752. Daifotis, A. G., Weir, E. C., Dreyer, B. E., et al. (1992) Stretch-induced parathyroid hormonerelated peptide gene expression in the rat uterus. J. Biol. Chem. 267, 23,455–23,458. Curtis, N. E., Ho, P. W., King, R. G., et al. (1997) The expression of parathyroid hormone-related protein mRNA and immunoreactive protein in human amnion and choriodecidua is increased at term compared with preterm gestation. J. Endocrinol. 154, 103–112. Steers, W. D., Broder, S. R., Persson, K., et al. (1998) Mechanical stretch increases secretion of parathyroid hormone-related protein by cultured bladder smooth muscle cells. J. Urol. 160, 908–912. Torday, J., Hua, J., and Slavin, R. (1995) Metabolism and fate of neutral lipids of fetal lung fibroblast origin. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1254, 198–206. Nicholas, T. E. (1996) Pulmonary surfactant: no mere paint on the alveolar wall. Respirology 1, 247–257. McCormack, D. G., Crawley, D. E., and Evans, T. W. (1993) New perspectives in the pulmonary circulation and hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Pulm. Pharmacol. 6, 97–108. Gewolb, I. H. and Torday, J. S. (1995) High glucose inhibits maturation of the fetal lung in vitro. Morphometric analysis of lamellar bodies and fibroblast lipid inclusions. Lab. Invest. 73, 59–63. Rubin, L. P. Sanchez-Esteban, J., Chinoy, M., et al. (2003) Transduction of mechanical signals by parathyroid hormone-related protein promotes pulmonary alveolar differentiation. J. Appl. Physiol., in press. Torday, J. S., Sun, H., Wang, L., et al. (2002) Leptin mediates the parathyroid hormonerelated protein paracrine stimulation of fetal lung maturation. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 282, L405-L410. Schultz, C. J., Londos, C., Sun, H., et al. (2002) Possible role of adipocyte differentiation related protein in lung surfactant phospholipid synthesis. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 283, L288-L296. Torday, J. S., Sun, H., and Qin, J. (1998) Prostaglandin E2 integrates the effects of fluid distension and glucocorticoid on lung maturation. Am. J. Physiol. 274, L106-L111. Skinner, S. J., Lowe, C., Ashby, C. J., et al. (1989) Effects of corticosteroids, prostaglandin E2, and beta-agonists on adenylate cyclase activity in fetal rat lung fibroblasts and type II epithelial cells. Exp. Lung Res. 15, 335–343. Pan, T., Mason, R. J., Westcott, J. Y., et al. (2001) Rat alveolar type II cells inhibit lung fibroblast proliferation in vitro. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 25, 353–361. Massaro, D. and Massaro, G. D. (20020 Pulmonary alveoli: formation, the “call for oxygen”, and other regulators. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 282, L345-L358. Harding, R. (1984) Function of the larynx in the fetus and newborn. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 46, 645–659. Torday, J. S., Torres, E., and Rehan, V. K. (2002) Effects of fibroblast transdifferentiation on pulmonary alveolar epithelial cell proliferation, differentiation and repair. Pediatr. Res. 51, 333A. Rehan, V. K., Ling, W., Su, F., and (2001) Hyperoxia enhances pulmonary lipofibroblast transdifferentiation to myofibroblast. Pediatr. Res. 49, 300A. Shin, J. H., Ji, C., Casinghino, S., et al. (1997) Parathyroid hormone-related protein enhances insulin-like growth factor-I expression by fetal rat dermal fibroblasts. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 23,498–23,502. Wilson, H. L., McFie, P. J., and Roesler, W. J. (2001) Characterization of domains in C/EBPalpha that mediate its constitutive and cAMP-inducible activities. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 181, 27–34. MacDougald, O. A., and Lane, M. D. (1995) Transcriptional regulation of gene expression during adipocyte differentiation. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 64, 345–373. Wu, Z., Rosen, E. D., Brun, R., et al. (1999) Cross-regulation of C/EBP alpha and PPAR gamma controls the transcriptional pathway of adipogenesis and insulin sensitivity. Mol. Cell 3, 151–158. Munsterberg, A. E., Kitajewski, J., Bumcrot, D. A., et al. (1995) Combinatorial signaling by Sonic hedgehog and Wnt family members induces myogenic bHLH gene expression in the somite. Genes Dev. 9, 2911–2922. Bostrom, H., Willetts, K., Pekny, M., et al. (1996) PDGF-A signaling is a critical event in lung alveolar myofibroblast development and alveogenesis. Cell 85, 863–873. Karlsson, L., Bondjers, C., and Betsholtz, C. (1999) Roles for PDGF-A and sonic hedgehog in development of mesenchymal components of the hair follicle. Development 126, 2611–2621. Senior, P. V., Heath, D. A., and Beck, F. (1991) Expression of parathyroid hormone-related protein mRNA in the rat before birth: demonstration by hybridization histochemistry. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 6 281–290. Speziale, M. V., Mannino, F. L., Hastings, R. H., et al. (1998) Parathyroid hormone-related protein in tracheal aspirates of newborn infants. Pediatr. Res. 43, 660–665. Jongen, J. W., Willemstein-Van Hove, E. C., Van der Meer, J. M., et al. (1995) Down-regulation of the receptor for parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-relatedpeptide by transforming growth factor-beta in primary fetal rat osteoblasts. Endocrinology 136, 3260–3266. Kaesler, S., Luscher, B., and Ruther, U. (2000) Transcriptional activity of GLI1 is negatively regulated by protein kinase A. Biol. Chem. 381, 545–551. Wang, R., Ramos, C., Joshi, I., et al. (1999) Human lung myofibroblast-derived inducers of alveolar epithelial apoptosis identified as angiotensin peptides. Am. J. Physiol. 277, L1158-L1164. Goldsmith, K. T., Gammon, R. B., and Garver, R. I., Jr. (1991) Modulation of bFGF in lung fibroblasts by TGF-beta and PDGF. Am. J. Physiol. 261, L378-L385. Chelly, N., Henrion, A., Pinteur, C., and (2001) Role of keratinocyte growth factor in the control of surfactant synthesis by fetal lung mesenchyme. Endocrinology 142, 1814–18199. Price, W. A. (1999) Peptide growth factors regulate insulin-like growth factor binding protein production by fetal rat lung fibroblasts. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 20, 332–341. Carmeliet, G., Vico, L., and Bouillon, R. (2001) Space flight: a challenge for normal bone homeostasis. Crit. Rev. Eukaryot. Gene Express. 11, 131–144. Prisk, G. K., Guy, H. J., Elliott, A. R., et al. (1994) Cardiopulmonary adaptation to weightlessness. J. Gravit. Physiol. 1, P118-P121. Wolf, D. A. and Schwarz, R. P. (1991) Analysis of gravity-induced particle motion and fluid perfusion flow in the NASA-designed rotating zero-head-space tissue culture vessel. NASA Technical Paper 3143, NASA, Washington, DC. Torday, J. S., Sun, H., and Ling, W. (2000) The effect of microgravity on parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) expression by bone and lung epithelial cells. FASEB J. 14, A622. Carmeliet, G., Vico, L., and Bouillon, R. (2001) Space flight: a challenge for normal bone homeostasis. Crit. Rev. Eukaryot. Gene Express. 11, 131–144. Oganov, V. S., Rakhmanov, A. S., Novikov, V. E., et al. (1991) The state of human bone tissue during space flight. Acad Astronaut. 23, 129–133. Loomer, P. M. (2001) The impact of microgravity on bone metabolism in vitro and in vivo. Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med. 12, 252–261. Vico, L., Collet, P., Guignandon, A., et al. (2000) Effects of long-term microgravity exposure on cancellous and cortical weight-bearing bones of cosmonauts. Lancet 355, 1607–1611. Barlow, P. W. (1995) Gravty perception in plants: a multiplicity of systems derived by evolution? Plant Cell Environ. 18, 951–962. Vico, L., Chappard, D., Alexandre, C., et al. (1987) Effects of weightlessness on bone mass and osteoclast number in pregnant rats after a five-day spaceflight (COSMOS 1514). Bone 8, 95–103. Sanford, G. L., Harris-Hooker, S., Lui, J., et al. (1999) Influence of changes in gravity on the response of lung and vascular cells to ischemia/reperfusion in vitro. J. Gravit. Physiol. 6, P27-P28. Adey, W. R. (1964) Effects of gravity on the functions of the central nervous system. Life Sci. Space Res. 2, 267–286. Fitts, R. H., Riley, D. R., and Widrick, J. J. (2001) Functional and structural adaptations of skeletal muscle to microgravity. J. Exp. Biol. 204, 3201–3208. Warburton, D., and Lee, M. K. (1999) Current concepts on lung development. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 11, 188–192. Canalis, E. (1993) Systemic and local factors and the maintenance of bone quality. Calcif. Tissue Int. 53, S90-S92. Zimmermann, B., Wachtel, H. C., Somogyi, H., et al. (1988) Bone formation by rat calvarial cells growth at high density in organoid culture. Cell Differ. Dev. 25, 145–154. Douglas, W. H., Teel, R. W. (1976) An organotypic in vitro model system for studying pulmonary surfactant production by type II alveolar pneumonocytes. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 113 17–23. Post, M., Torday, J. S., and Smith, B. T. (1984) Alveolar type II cells isolated from fetal rat lung organotypic cultures synthesize and secrete surfactant-associated phospholipids and respond to fibroblast-pneumonocyte factor. Exp. Lung Res. 7, 53–65. Bak, P. and Paczuski, M. (1995) Complexity contingency, and criticality. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 6689–6696. Newman, S. A. (2002) Developmental mechanisms: putting genes in their place. J. Biosci. 27, 97–104. Vilos, G. A., and Liggins, G. C. (1982) Intrathoracic pressures in fetal sheep. J. Dev. Physiol. 4, 247–256. Srinivasan, S., Strange, J., Awonusonu, F., et al. (2002) Insulin-like growth factor I receptor is downregulated after alveolarization in an apoptotic fibroblast subset. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 282, L457-L467. Neidlinger-Wilke, C., Grood, E. S., Wang, J.-H.-C., et al. (2001) Cell alignment is induced by cyclic changes in cell length: studies of cells grown in cyclically stretched substrates. J. Orthop. Res. 19, 286–293. Selman, M., King, T. E., and Pardo, A. (2001) Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: prevailing and evolving hypotheses about its pathogenesis and implications for therapy. Ann. Intern. Med. 134, 136–151. Karaplis, A. C., Luz, A., Glowacki, J., et al. (1994) Lethal skeletal dysplasia from targeted disruption of the parathyroid hormone-related peptide gene. Genes Dev. 8, 277–289. Kronenberg, H. M., Karaplis, A. C., and Lanske, B. (1996) Role of parathyroid hormone-related protein in skeletal development. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 785, 119–123. Folny, J., Dann, P., Hong, J., et al. (2001) Parathyroid hormone-related protein maintains mammary epithelial fate and triggers nipple skin differentiation during embryonic breast development. Development 128, 513–525. American Thoracic Society. (2000) Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: diagnosis and treatment. International consensus statement. American Thoracic Society (ATS), and the European Respiratory Society (ERS). Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161, 646–664. Selman, M., King, T. E., and Pardo, A. (2001) Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: prevailing and evolving hypotheses about its pathogenesis and implications for therapy. Ann. Intern. Med. 134, 136–151. Ilyin, E. A. and Oganov, V. S. (1989) Microgravity and musculoskeletal system of mamals. Adv. Space. Res. 9, 11–9. Cros, M., Silve, C., Graulet, A. M., et al. (1998) Estrogen stimulates PTHrP but not PTH/PTHrP receptor gene expression in the kidney of ovariectomized rat. J. Cell Biochem. 70, 84–93.