Diagnosis and Management of Bronchiolitis

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Management of Bronchiolitis in Infants and Children. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 69. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2003. AHRQ Publication No. 03-E014

Mullins JA, Lamonte AC, Bresee JS, Anderson LJ. Substantial variability in community respiratory syncytial virus season timing. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22:857–862

Greenough A, Cox S, Alexander J, et al. Health care utilisation of infants with chronic lung disease, related to hospitalisation for RSV infection. Arch Dis Child. 2001;85:463–468

Parrott RH, Kim HW, Arrobio JO, et al. Epidemiology of RSV infection in Washington DC II: infection and disease with respect to age, immunologic status, race and sex. Am J Epidemiol. 1973;98:289–300

Meissner HC. Selected populations at increased risk from respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22(2 suppl):S40–S44; discussion S44–S45

Shay DK, Holman RC, Roosevelt GE, Clarke MJ, Anderson LJ. Bronchiolitis-associated mortality and estimates of respiratory syncytial virus-associated deaths among US children, 1979–1997. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:16–22

Leader S, Kohlhase K. Recent trends in severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) among US infants, 1997 to 2000. J Pediatr. 2003;143(5 suppl):S127–S132

Stang P, Brandenburg N, Carter B. The economic burden of respiratory syncytial virus-associated bronchiolitis hospitalizations. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2001;155:95–96

Willson DF, Horn SD, Hendley JO, Smout R, Gassaway J. Effect of practice variation on resource utilization in infants for viral lower respiratory illness. Pediatrics. 2001;108:851–855

Wang EE, Law BJ, Boucher FD, et al. Pediatric Investigators Collaborative Network on Infections in Canada (PICNIC) study of admission and management variation in patients hospitalized with respiratory syncytial viral lower respiratory tract infection. J Pediatr. 1996;129:390–395

Brand PLP, Vaessen-Verberne AAPH. Differences in management of bronchiolitis between hospitals in the Netherlands. Eur J Pediatr. 2000;159:343–347

Behrendt CE, Decker MD, Burch DJ, Watson PH. International variation in the management of infants hospitalized with respiratory syncytial virus. International RSV Study Group. Eur J Pediatr. 1998;157:215–220

Martinez FD. Respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis and the pathogenesis of childhood asthma. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22(2 suppl):S76–S82

Stein RT, Sherrill D, Morgan WJ, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus in early life and risk of wheeze and allergy by age 13 years. Lancet. 1999;354:541–545

Schauer U, Hoffjan S, Bittscheidt J, et al. RSV bronchiolitis and risk of wheeze and allergic sensitization in the first year of life. Eur Respir J. 2002;20:1277–1283

American Academy of Pediatrics, Steering Committee on Quality Improvement and Management. Classifying recommendations for clinical practice guidelines. Pediatrics. 2004;114:874–877

Jobe AH, Bancalari E. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163:1723–1729

Ashton R, Connolly K. The relation of respiration rate and heart rate to sleep states in the human newborn. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1971;13:180–187

Iliff A, Lee VA. Pulse rate, respiratory rate, and body temperature of children between two months and eighteen years of age. Child Dev. 1952;23:237–245

Rogers MC. Respiratory monitoring. In: Rogers MC, Nichols DG, eds. Textbook of Pediatric Intensive Care. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1996:332–333

Berman S, Simoes EA, Lanata C. Respiratory rate and pneumonia in infancy. Arch Dis Child. 1991;66:81–84

Margolis P, Gadomski A. The rational clinical examination: does this infant have pneumonia?JAMA. 1998;279:308–313

Mahabee-Gittens EM, Grupp-Phelan J, Brody AS, et al. Identifying children with pneumonia in the emergency department. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2005;44:427–435

Brooks AM, McBride JT, McConnochie KM, Aviram M, Long C, Hall CB. Predicting deterioration in previously healthy infants hospitalized with respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pediatrics. 1999;104:463–467

Navas L, Wang E, de Carvalho V, Robinson J. Improved outcome of respiratory syncytial virus infection in a high-risk hospitalized population of Canadian children. Pediatric Investigators Collaborative Network on Infections in Canada. J Pediatr. 1992;121:348–354

Wang EE, Law BJ, Stephens D. Pediatric Investigators Collaborative Network on Infections in Canada (PICNIC) prospective study of risk factors and outcomes in patients hospitalized with respiratory syncytial viral lower respiratory tract infection. J Pediatr. 1995;126:212–219

Shaw KN, Bell LM, Sherman NH. Outpatient assessment of infants with bronchiolitis. Am J Dis Child. 1991;145:151–155

Chan, PW, Lok FY, Khatijah SB. Risk factors for hypoxemia and respiratory failure in respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2002;33:806–810

MacDonald NE, Hall CB, Suffin SC, Alexson C, Harris PJ, Manning JA. Respiratory syncytial viral infection in infants with congenital heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1982;307:397–400

Hall CB, Powell KR, MacDonald NE, et al. Respiratory syncytial viral infection in children with compromised immune function. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:77–81

McMillan JA, Tristram DA, Weiner LB, Higgins AP, Sandstrom C, Brandon R. Prediction of the duration of hospitalization in patients with respiratory syncytial virus infection: use of clinical parameters. Pediatrics. 1988;81:22–26

Roback MG, Baskin MN. Failure of oxygen saturation and clinical assessment to predict which patients with bronchiolitis discharged from the emergency department will return requiring admission. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1997;13:9–11

Lowell DI, Lister G, Von Koss H, McCarthy P. Wheezing in infants: the response to epinephrine. Pediatrics. 1987;79:939–945

Hall CB, Hall WJ, Speers DM. Clinical and physiological manifestations of bronchiolitis and pneumonia: outcome of respiratory syncytial virus. Am J Dis Child. 1979;133:798–802

Schroeder AR, Marmor AK, Pantell RH, Newman TB. Impact of pulse oximetry and oxygen therapy on length of stay in bronchiolitis hospitalizations. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004;158:527–530

Dawson KP, Long A, Kennedy J, Mogridge N. The chest radiograph in acute bronchiolitis. J Paediatr Child Health. 1990;26:209–211

Roosevelt G, Sheehan K, Grupp-Phelan J, Tanz RR, Listernic R. Dexamethasone in bronchiolitis: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 1996;348:292–305

Swingler GH, Hussey GD, Zwarenstein M. Randomised controlled trial of clinical outcome after chest radiograph in ambulatory acute lower-respiratory infection in children. Lancet. 1998;351:404–408

Mallory MD, Shay DK, Garrett J, Bordley WC. Bronchiolitis management preferences and the influence of pulse oximetry and respiratory rate on the decision to admit. Pediatrics. 2003;111(1). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/111/1/e45

Bordley WC, Viswanathan M, King VJ, et al. Diagnosis and testing in bronchiolitis: a systematic review. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004;158:119–126

Liebelt E, Qi K, Harvey K. Diagnostic testing for serious bacterial infections in infants aged 90 days or younger with bronchiolitis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999;153:525–530

Kuppermann N, Bank DE, Walton EA, Senac MO Jr, McCaslin I. Risks for bacteremia and urinary tract infections in young febrile children with bronchiolitis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1997;151:1207–1214

Levine DA, Platt SL, Dayan PS, et al. Risk of serious bacterial infection in young febrile infants with respiratory syncytial virus infections. Pediatrics. 2004;113:1728–1734

Kellner JD, Ohlsson A, Gadomski AM, Wang EE. Bronchodilators for bronchiolitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD001266

Alario AJ, Lewander WJ, Dennehy P, Seifer R, Mansell AL. The efficacy of nebulized metaproterenol in wheezing infants and young children. Am J Dis Child. 1992;146:412–418

Henry RL, Milner AD, Stokes GM. Ineffectiveness of ipratropium bromide in acute bronchiolitis. Arch Dis Child. 1983;58:925–926

Klassen TP, Rowe PC, Sutcliffe T, Ropp LJ, McDowell IW, Li MM. Randomized trial of salbutamol in acute bronchiolitis. J Pediatr. 1991;118:807–811

Lines DR, Kattampallil JS, Liston P. Efficacy of nebulized salbutamol in bronchiolitis. Pediatr Rev Commun. 1990;5:121–129

Mallol J, Barrueo L, Girardi G, et al. Use of nebulized bronchodilators in infants under 1 year of age: analysis of four forms of therapy. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1987;3:298–303

Tal A, Bavilski C, Yohai D, Bearman JE, Gorodischer R, Moses SW. Dexamethasone and salbutamol in the treatment of acute wheezing in infants. Pediatrics. 1983;71:13–18

Wainwright C, Altamirano L, Cheney M, et al. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of nebulized epinephrine in infants with acute bronchiolitis. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:27–35

Schweich PJ, Hurt TL, Walkley EI, Mullen N, Archibald LF. The use of nebulized albuterol in wheezing infants. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1992;8:184–188

Schuh S, Canny G, Reisman JJ, et al. Nebulized albuterol in acute bronchiolitis. J Pediatr. 1990;117:633–637

Gadomski AM, Lichtenstein R, Horton L, King J, Keane V, Permutt T. Efficacy of albuterol in the management of bronchiolitis. Pediatrics. 1994;93:907–912

Dobson JV, Stephens-Groff SM, McMahon SR, Stemmler MM, Brallier SL, Bay C. The use of albuterol in hospitalized infants with bronchiolitis. Pediatrics. 1998;101:361–368

Flores G, Horwitz RI. Efficacy of beta2-agonists in bronchiolitis: a reappraisal and meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 1997;l00:233–239

Kristjansson S, Lodrup Carlsen KC, Wennergren G, Strannegard IL, Carlsen KH. Nebulised racemic adrenaline in the treatment of acute bronchiolitis in infants and toddlers. Arch Dis Child. 1993;69:650–654

Menon K, Sutcliffe T, Klassen TP. A randomized trial comparing the efficacy of epinephrine with salbutamol in the treatment of acute bronchiolitis. J Pediatr. 1995;126:1004–1007

Numa AH, Williams GD, Dakin CJ. The effect of nebulized epinephrine on respiratory mechanics and gas exchange in bronchiolitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:86–91

Wohl ME, Chernick V. State of the art: bronchiolitis. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1978;118:759–781

Hartling L, Wiebe N, Russell K, Patel H, Klassen T. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials evaluating the efficacy of epinephrine for the treatment of acute viral bronchiolitis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:957–967

Hartling L, Wiebe N, Russell K, Patel H, Klassen TP. Epinephrine for bronchiolitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(1):CD003123

Bierman CW, Pierson WE. The pharmacological management of status asthmaticus in children. Pediatrics. 1974;54:245–247

Schuh S, Coates AL, Binnie R, et al. Efficacy of oral dexamethasone in outpatients with acute bronchiolitis. J Pediatr. 2002;140:27–32

Gorelick MH, Stevens MW, Schultz TR, Scribano PV. Performance of a novel clinical score, the Pediatric Asthma Severity Score (PASS) in the evaluation of acute asthma. Acad Emerg Med. 2004;11:10–18

Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center. Evidence-based clinical practice guideline for the medical management of infants less than 1 year with a first episode of bronchiolitis. Available at: www.cincinnatichildrens.org/NR/rdonlyres/B3EC347E-65AC-490A-BC4C-55C3AF4B76D5/0/BronchRS.pdf. Accessed June 21, 2006

Goh A, Chay OM, Foo AL, Ong EK. Efficacy of bronchodilators in the treatment of bronchiolitis. Singapore Med J. 1997;38:326–328

Chowdhury D, al Howasi M, Khalil M, al-Frayh AS, Chowdhury S, Ramia S. The role of bronchodilators in the management of bronchiolitis: a clinical trial. Ann Trop Paediatr. 1995;15:77–84

Wang EE, Milner R, Allen U, Maj H. Bronchodialtors for treatment of mild bronchiolitis: a factorial randomized trial. Arch Dis Child. 1992;67:289–293

Shay DK, Holman RC, Newman RD, Liu LL, Stout JW, Anderson LJ. Bronchiolitis associated hospitalizations among US children, 1980–1996. JAMA. 1999;282:1440–1446

Patel H, Platt R, Lozano JM, Wang EE. Glucocorticoids for acute viral bronchiolitis in infants and young children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(3):CD004878

Garrison MM, Christakis DA, Harvey E, Cummings P, Davis RL. Systemic corticosteroids in infant bronchiolitis: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2000;105(4). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/105/4/e44

Berger I, Argaman Z, Schwartz SB, et al. Efficacy of corticosteroids in acute bronchiolitis: short-term and long-term follow-up. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1998;26:162–166

Bulow SM, Nir M, Levin E, et al. Prednisolone treatment of respiratory syncytial virus infection: a randomized controlled trial of 147 infants. Pediatrics. 1999;104(6). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/105/6/e77

Connolly JH, Field CMB, Glasgoe JFT, Slattery M, MacLynn DM. A double blind trial of prednisolone in epidemic bronchiolitis due to respiratory syncytial virus. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1969;58:116–120

Dabbous JA, Tkachyk JS, Stamm SJ. A double blind study on the effects of corticosteroids in the treatment of bronchiolitis. Pediatrics. 1966;37:477–484

DeBoeck K, Van der Aa N, Van Lierde S, Corbeel L, Eeckels R. Respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis: a double-blind dexamethasone efficacy study. J Pediatr. 1997;131:919–921

Goebel J, Estrada B, Quinonez J, Nagji N, Sanford D, Boerth RC. Prednisolone plus albuterol versus albuterol alone in mild to moderate bronchiolitis. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2000;39:213–220

Klassen TP, Sutcliffe T, Watters LK, Wells GA, Allen UD, Li MM. Dexamethasone in salbutamol-treated inpatients with acute bronchiolitis: a randomized controlled trial. J Pediatr. 1997;130:191–196

Leer JA, Bloomfield N, Green JL, et al. Corticosteroid treatment in bronchiolitis. Am J Dis Child. 1969;117:495–503

Springer C, Bar-Yishay E, Uwayyed K, Avital A, Vilozni D, Godfrey S. Corticosteroids do not affect the clinical or physiological status of infants with bronchiolitis. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1990;9:181–185

Van Woensel JBM, Wolfs TFW, van Aaldersen WMC, Brand PLP, Kimpen JLL. Randomised double blind placebo controlled trial of prednisolone in children admitted to hospital with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Thorax. 1997;52:634–637

de Blic J. Use of corticoids in acute bronchiolitis in infants [in French]. Arch Pediatr. 2001;9 (suppl 1):49S–54S

Chao LC, Lin YZ, Wu WF, Huang FY. Efficacy of nebulized budesonide in hospitalized infants and children younger than 24 months with bronchiolitis. Acta Paediatr Taiwan. 2003;44:332–335

King VJ, Viswanathan M, Bordley WC, et al. Pharmacologic treatment of bronchiolitis in infants and children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004;158:127–137

Hall CB, McBride JT, Walsh EE, et al. Aerosolized ribavirin treatment of infants with respiratory syncytial viral infection: a randomized double-blind study. N Engl J Med. 1983;308:1443–1447

Taber LH, Knight V, Gilbert BE, et al. Ribavirin aerosol treatment of bronchiolitis associated with respiratory syncytial virus infection in infants. Pediatrics. 1983;72:613–618

Barry W, Cockburn F, Cornall R, et al. Ribavirin aerosol for acute bronchiolitis. Arch Dis Child. 1986;61:593–597

Rodriguez WJ, Kim HW, Brandt CD, et al. Aerosolized ribavirin in the treatment of patients with respiratory syncytial virus disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1987;6:159–163

Smith DW, Frankel LR, Mathers LH, Tang AT, Ariagno RL, Prober CG. A controlled trial of aerosolized ribavirin in infants receiving mechanical ventilation for severe respiratory syncytial virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:24–29

Janai HK, Stutman HR, Zeleska M, et al. Ribavirin effect on pulmonary function in young infants with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1993;12:214–218

Meert KL, Sarnaik AP, Gelmini MJ, Lieh-Lai MW. Aerosolized ribavirin in mechanically ventilated children with respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract disease: a double-blind, randomized trial. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:566–572

Guerguerian AM, Gauthier M, Lebel MH, Farrell CA, Lacroix J. Ribavirin in ventilated respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:829–834

Everard ML, Swarbrick A, Rigby AS, Milner AD. The effect of ribavirin to treat previously healthy infants admitted with acute bronchiolitis on acute and chronic respiratory morbidity. Respir Med. 2001;95:275–280

Rodriguez WJ, Arrobio J, Fink R, Kim HW, Milburn C. Prospective follow-up and pulmonary functions from a placebo-controlled randomized trial of ribavirin therapy in respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999;153:469–474

Edell D, Khoshoo V, Ross G, Salter K. Early ribavirin treatment of bronchiolitis. Chest. 2002;122:935–939

Hall CB, McBride JT, Gala CL, Hildreth SW, Schnabel KC. Ribavirin treatment of respiratory syncytial viral infection in infants with underlying cardiopulmonary disease. JAMA. 1985;254:3047–3051

Groothuis JR, Woodin KA, Katz R, et al. Early ribavirin treatment of respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk children. J Pediatr. 1990;117:792–798

Long CE, Voter KZ, Barker WH, Hall CB. Long term follow-up of children hospitalized with respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infection and randomly treated with ribavirin and placebo. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1997;16:1023–1028

Bradley JS, Conner JD, Compagiannis LS, Eiger LL. Exposure of health care workers to ribavirin during therapy for respiratory syncytial virus infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990;34:668–670

Rodriguez WJ, Bui RHD, Conner JD, et al. Environmental exposure of primary care personnel to ribavirin aerosol when supervising treatment of infants with respiratory syncytial virus infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1987;31:1143–1146

Feldstein TJ, Swegarden JL, Atwood GF, Peterson CD. Ribavirin therapy: implementation of hospital guidelines and effect on usage and cost of therapy. Pediatrics. 1995;96:14–17

Putto A, Ruuskanen O, Meruman O. Fever in respiratory virus infections. Am J Dis Child. 1986;140:1159–1163

LaVia W, Marks MI, Stutman HR. Respiratory syncytial virus puzzle: clinical features, pathophysiology, treatment, and prevention. J Pediatr. 1992;121:503–510

Nichol KP, Cherry JD. Bacterial-viral interrelations in respiratory infections in children. N Engl J Med. 1967;277:667–672

Field CM, Connolly JH, Murtagh G, Slattery CM, Turkington EE. Antibiotic treatment of epidemic bronchiolitis. Br Med J. 1966;5479:83–85

Friis B, Andersen P. Brenoe E, et al. Antibiotic treatment of pneumonia and bronchiolitis. A prospective randomised study. Arch Dis Child. 1984;59:1038–1045

Antonow JA, Hansen K, McKinstry CA, Byington CL. Sepsis evaluations in hospitalized infants with bronchiolitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17:231–236

Greenes DS, Harper MB. Low risk of bacteremia in febrile children with recognizable viral syndromes. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1999;18:258–261

Purcell K, Fergie J. Concurrent serious bacterial infections in 2396 infants and children hospitalized with respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infections. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002;156:322–324

Purcell K, Fergie J. Concurrent serious bacterial infections in 912 infants and children hospitalized for treatment of respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23:267–269

Titus MO, Wright SW. Prevalence of serious bacterial infections in febrile infants with respiratory syncytial virus infections. Pediatrics. 2003;112:282–284

Melendez E, Harper MB. Utility of sepsis evaluation in infants 90 days of age or younger with fever and clinical bronchiolitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22:1053–1056

Hall CB, Powell KR, Schnabel KC, Gala CL, Pincus PH. Risk of serious bacterial infection in infants hospitalized with respiratory syncytial viral infection. J Pediatr. 1988;113:266–271

Hall CB. Respiratory syncytial virus: a continuing culprit and conundrum. J Pediatr. 1999;135(2 pt 2):2–7

Davies HD, Matlow A, Petric M, Glazier R, Wang EE. Prospective comparative study of viral, bacterial and atypical organisms identified in pneumonia and bronchiolitis in hospitalized Canadian infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1996;15:371–375

Andrade MA, Hoberman A, Glustein J, Paradise JL, Wald ER. Acute otitis media in children with bronchiolitis. Pediatrics. 1998;101:617–619

Shazberg G, Revel-Vilk S, Shoseyov D, Ben-Ami A, Klar A, Hurvitz H. The clinical course of bronchiolitis associated with otitis media. Arch Dis Child. 2000;83:317–319

American Academy of Pediatrics, Subcommittee on Management of Acute Otitis Media. Diagnosis and management of acute otitis media. Pediatrics. 2004;113:1451–1465

Khoshoo V, Edell D. Previously healthy infants may have increased risk of aspiration during respiratory syncytial viral bronchiolitis. Pediatrics. 1999;104:1389–1390

Gozal D, Colin AA, Jaffe M, Hochberg Z. Water, electrolyte, and endocrine homeostasis in infants with bronchiolitis. Pediatr Res. 1990;27:204–209

van Steensel-Moll HA, Hazelzet JA, van der Voort E, Neijens HJ, Hackeng WH. Excessive secretion of antidiuretic hormone in infections with respiratory syncytial virus. Arch Dis Child. 1990;65:1237–1239

Perotta C, Ortiz Z, Roque M. Chest physiotherapy for acute bronchiolitis in paediatric patients between 0 and 24 months old. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(2):CD004873

Nicholas KJ, Dhouieb MO, Marshal TG, Edmunds AT, Grant MB. An evaluation of chest physiotherapy in the management of acute bronchiolitis: changing clinical practice. Physiotherapy. 1999;85:669–674

Webb MS, Martin JA, Cartlidge PH, Ng YK, Wright NA. Chest physiotherapy in acute bronchiolitis. Arch Dis Child. 1985;60:1078–1079

Bohe L, Ferrero ME, Cuestas E, Polliotto L, Genoff M. Indications of conventional chest physiotherapy in acute bronchiolitis [in Spanish]. Medicina (B Aires). 2004;64:198–200

O'Brien LM, Stebbens VA, Poets CF, Heycock EG, Southall DP. Oxygen saturation during the first 24 hours of life. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2000;83:F35–F38

Hunt CE, Corwin MJ, Lister G, et al. Longitudinal assessment of hemoglobin oxygen saturation in healthy infants during the first 6 months of age. Collaborative Home Infant Monitoring Evaluation (CHIME) Study Group. J Pediatr. 1999;135:580–586

Young S, O'Keeffe PT, Arnott J, Landau LI. Lung function, airway responsiveness, and respiratory symptoms before and after bronchiolitis. Arch Dis Child. 1995;72:16–24

Forster RE II, Dubois AB, Briscoe WA, Fisher AB. The Lung: Physiologic Basis of Pulmonary Function Tests. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc; 1986

Chernick V, Boat TF. Kendig's Disorders of the Respiratory Tract in Children. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Co; 1998

Salyer JW. Neonatal and pediatric pulse oximetry. Respir Care. 2003;48:386–396; discussion 397–398

Groothuis JR, Gutierrez KM, Lauer BA. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in children with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics. 1988;82:199–203

Grimaldi M, Gouyon B, Michaut F, Huet F, Gouyon J; Burgundy Perinatal Network. Severe respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis: epidemiologic variations associated with the initiation of palivizumab in severely premature infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23:1081–1085

Horn SD, Smout RJ. Effect of prematurity on respiratory syncytial virus hospital resource use and outcomes. J Pediatr. 2003;143(5 suppl):S133–S141

American Academy of Pediatrics. Red Book: 2006 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 27th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2006

The IMpact-RSV study group. Palivizumab, a humanized respiratory syncytial virus monoclonal antibody, reduces hospitalization from respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants. Pediatrics. 1998;102:531–537

Feltes TF, Cabalka AK, Meissner HC, et al. Palivizumab prophylaxis reduces hospitalization due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children with hemodynamically significant congenital heart disease. J Pediatr. 2003;143:532–540

Romero JR. Palivizumab prophylaxis of respiratory syncytial virus disease from 1998 to 2002: results from four years of palivizumab usage. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22(2 suppl):S46–S54

Hay JW, Ernst RL, Meissner HC. RSV-IGIV: a cost effectiveness analysis. Am J Manag Care. 1996;2:851–861

O'Shea TM, Sevick MA, Givner LB. Costs and benefits of respiratory syncytial virus immunoglobulin to prevent hospitalization for lower respiratory tract illness in very low birth weight infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17:587–593

Robbins JM, Tilford JM, Jacobs RF, Wheeler JG, Gillaspy SR, Schutze GE. A number-needed-to-treat analysis of respiratory syncytial virus immune globulin intravenous to prevent hospitalization [published correction appears in Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1998;152:577]. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1998;152:358–366

Atkins JT, Karimi P, Morris BH, McDavid G, Shim S. Prophylaxis for RSV with RSV-IGIV among preterm infants of thirty-two weeks gestation and less: reduction in incidence, severity of illness and cost. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2002;19:138–143

Thomas M, Bedford-Russell A, Sharland M. Hospitalization for RSV infection in ex-preterm infants: implications for use of RSV-IGIV. Arch Dis Child. 2000;83:122–127

Joffe S, Ray GT, Escobar GJ, Black SB, Lieu TA. Cost-effectiveness of RSV prophylaxis among preterm infants. Pediatrics. 1999;104:419–427

Stevens TP, Sinkin RA, Hall CB, Maniscalco WM, McConnochie KM. Respiratory syncytial virus and premature infants born at 32 weeks' gestation or earlier: hospitalization and economic implications of prophylaxis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2000;154:55–61

Kamal-Bahl S, Doshi J, Campbell J. Economic analysis of respiratory syncytial virus immunoprophylaxis in high-risk infants. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002;156:1034–1041

Aintablian N, Walpita P, Sawyer MH. Detection of Bordetella pertussis and respiratory synctial virus in air samples from hospital rooms. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1998;19:918–923

Hall CB. Nosocomial respiratory syncytial virus infections: the “Cold War” has not ended. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:590–596

Sattar SA, Terro J, Vashon R, Keswick B. Hygienic hand antiseptics: should they not have activity and label claims against viruses?Am J Infect Control. 2002;30:355–372

Boyce JM, Pittet D; Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee, HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings. Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America/Association for Professionals in Infection Control/Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recomm Rep. 200225;51(RR-16):1–45; quiz CE1–CE4

Isaacs D, Dickson H, O'Callaghan C, Sheaves R, Winter A, Moxon ER. Handwashing and cohorting in prevention of hospital acquired infections with respiratory syncytial virus. Arch Dis Child. 1991;66:227–231

Krasinski K, LaCouture R, Holzman RS, Waithe E, Bonk S, Hanna B. Screening for respiratory syncytial virus and assignment to a cohort at admission to reduce nosocomial transmission. J Pediatr. 1990;116:894–898

Karanfil LV, Conlon M, Lykens K, et al. Reducing the rate of nosocomially transmitted respiratory syncytial virus [published correction appears in Am J Infect Control. 1999;27:303]. Am J Infect Control. 1999;27:91–96

Macartney KK, Gorelick MH, Manning ML, Hodinka RL, Bell LM. Nosocomial respiratory syncytial virus infections: the cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit of infection control. Pediatrics. 2000;106:520–526

McConnochie KM, Roghmann KJ. Breast feeding and maternal smoking as predictors of wheezing in children age 6 to 10 years. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1986;2:260–268

Strachan DP, Cook DG. Health effects of passive smoking. 1. Parental smoking and lower respiratory illness in infancy and early childhood. Thorax. 1997;52:905–914

Stocks J, Dezateux C. The effect of parental smoking on lung function and development during infancy. Respirology. 2003;8:266–285

Shiva F, Basiri M, Sadeghi B, Padyab M. Effects of passive smoking on common respiratory symptoms in young children. Acta Paediatr. 2003;92:1394–1397

Nandapalan N, Taylor C, Scott R, Toms GL. Mammary immunity in mothers of infants with respiratory syncytial virus infection. J Med Virol. 1987;22:277–287

Chiba Y, Minagawa T, Mito K, et al. Effect of breast feeding on responses of systemic interferon and virus-specific lymphocyte transformation in infants with respiratory syncytial virus infection. J Med Virol. 1987;21:7–14

Laegreid A, Kolsto Otnaess AB, Orstavik I, Carlsen KH. Neutralizing activity in human milk fractions against respiratory syncytial virus. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1986;75:696–701

Pullan CR, Toms GL, Martin AJ, Gardner PS, Webb JK, Appleton DR. Breastfeeding and respiratory syncytial virus infection. Br Med J. 1980;281:1034–1036

Downham MAPS, Scott R, Sims DG, Webb JKG, Gardner PS. Breast-feeding protects against respiratory syncytial virus infections. Br Med J. 1976;2(6030):274–276

Bachrach VR, Schwarz E, Bachrach LR. Breastfeeding and the risk of hospitalization for respiratory disease in infancy: a meta-analysis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:237–243

Cohen HA, Varsano I, Kahan E, Sarrell EM, Uziel Y. Effectiveness of an herbal preparation containing echinacea, propolis, and vitamin C in preventing respiratory tract infections in children: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004;158:217–221