Dietary omega 3 fatty acids and the developing brain

Ahmad, 2002, Decrease in neuron size in docosahexaenoic acid-deficient brain, Pediatr. Neurol., 26, 210, 10.1016/S0887-8994(01)00383-6 Arbuckle, 1992, Docosahexaenoic acid in developing brain and retina of piglets fed high or low alpha-linolenate formula with and without fish oil, Lipids, 27, 89, 10.1007/BF02535805 Arbuckle, 1993, Docosahexaenoic acid is transferred through maternal diet to milk and to tissues of natural milk-fed piglets, J. Nutr., 123, 1668, 10.1093/jn/123.10.1668 Arbuckle, 1991, Response of (n-3) and (n-6) fatty acids in brain, liver and plasma of piglets fed formula to increasing, but low, levels of fish supplementation, J. Nutr., 121, 1536, 10.1093/jn/121.10.1536 Arbuckle, 1994, Formula 18:2(n-6) and 18:3(n-3) content and ratio influence long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the developing piglet liver and central nervous system, J. Nutr., 124, 289, 10.1093/jn/124.2.289 Bazan, 2003, Synaptic lipid signaling: significance of polyunsaturated fatty acids and platelet-activating factor, J. Lipid. Res., 4, 2221, 10.1194/jlr.R300013-JLR200 Bazan, 2006, Cell survival matters: docosahexaenoic acid signaling, neuroprotection and photoreceptors, Trends Neurosci., 29, 263, 10.1016/j.tins.2006.03.005 Berger, 2001, Anandamide and diet: Inclusion of dietary arachidonate and docosahexaenoate leads to increased brain levels of the corresponding N-acyl ethanolamines in piglets, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 98, 6402, 10.1073/pnas.101119098 Birch, 1992, Dietary essential fatty acid supply and visual acuity development, Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., 33, 3242 Bourre, 1989, The effects of dietary a-linolenic acid on the composition of nerve membranes, enzymatic activity, amplitude of electrophysiological parameters, resistance to poisons and performance of learning tasks in rats, J. Nutr., 119, 1880, 10.1093/jn/119.12.1880 Bourre, 1990, Dietary linoleic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acids in rat brain and other organs. Minimal requirements of linoleic acid, Lipids, 25, 465, 10.1007/BF02538090 Bouwstra, 2003, Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids have a positive effect on the quality of general movements of healthy term infants, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 78, 313, 10.1093/ajcn/78.2.313 Brenner, 1966, Effect of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids on the desaturation in vitro of palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids, J. Biol. Chem., 241, 2519, 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)96419-7 Calderon, 2004, Docosahexaenoic acid promotes neurite growth in hippocampal neurons, J. Neurochem., 90, 979, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02520.x Cao, 2005, Effects of docosahexaenoic acid on the survival and neurite outgrowth of rat cortical neurons in primary cultures, J. Nutr. Biochem., 16, 538, 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2005.02.002 Carlson, 1996, Visual acuity and fatty acid status of term infants fed human milk and formulas with and without docosahexaenoate and arachidonate from egg yolk lecithin, Pediatr. Res., 39, 882, 10.1203/00006450-199605000-00024 Carnielli, 2007, Synthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm newborns fed formula with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 86, 1323, 10.1093/ajcn/86.5.1323 Caspi, 2007, Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 104, 1, 10.1073/pnas.0704292104 Chen, 2005, Lipid signaling: sleep, synaptic plasticity, and neuroprotection, Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat., 77, 65, 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2005.07.001 2000 Colombo, 2004, Maternal DHA and the development of attention in infancy and toddlerhood, Child Dev., 75, 1254, 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00737.x Corey, 1983, Docosahexaenoic acid is a strong inhibitor of prostaglandin but not leukotriene biosynthesis, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 80, 3581, 10.1073/pnas.80.12.3581 Coti-Bertrand, 2006, Maternal dietary n-3 fatty acid deficiency alters neurogenesis in the embryonic rat brain, J. Nutr., 36, 1570, 10.1093/jn/136.6.1570 Darios, 2006, Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids stimulate cell membrane expansion by acting on syntaxin 3, Nature, 440, 813, 10.1038/nature04598 de la Presa Owens, 1999, Docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid reverse changes in dopaminergic and sertoninergic neurotransmitters in piglets frontal cortex caused by a linoleic and alpha linolenic acid deficient diet, J. Nutr., 129, 2088, 10.1093/jn/129.11.2088 Dullemeijer, 2007, N-3 fatty acid proportions in plasma and cognitive performance in older adults, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 86, 1479, 10.1093/ajcn/86.5.1479 Dunstan, 2006, Cognitive assessment at 2 1/2 years following fish oil supplementation in pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial, Arch. Dis. Child Fetal Neonat. ED., 93, F45, 10.1136/adc.2006.099085 Elias, 2001, Newborn infant plasma trans, conjugated linoleic, n-6 and n-3 fatty acids are related to maternal plasma fatty acids, length of gestation and birth weight and length, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 73, 807, 10.1093/ajcn/73.4.807 Farquharson, 1995, Effect of diet on the fatty acid composition of the major phospholipids of infant cerebral cortex, Arch. Dis. Child., 72, 198, 10.1136/adc.72.3.198 Ferritti, 1990, Modification of prostaglandin metabolism in vivo by long chain omega-3 polyunsaturates, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1045, 299, 10.1016/0005-2760(90)90134-J Fewtrell, 2006, Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in early life: effects on multiple health outcomes. A critical review of current status, gaps and knowledge, Nestle Nutr. Workshop Ser. Pediatr. Progr., 57, 203, 10.1159/000091073 Galli, 1971, Effects of dietary fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of brain ethanolamine phosphoglyceride, reciprocal replacement of ω6 and ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, Biochim. Biophys. Acta., 248, 449, 10.1016/0005-2760(71)90233-5 Georgieff, 2005, Controversial nutrients that potentially affect preterm neurodevelopment: essential fatty acids and iron, Pediatr. Res., 57, 99R, 10.1203/01.PDR.0000160542.69840.0F Gibson, 1997, Effect of increasing breast milk docosahexaenoic acid on plasma and erythrocyte phospholipid fatty acids and neural indices of exclusively breast-fed infants, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 51, 578, 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600446 Goyens, 2005, Compartmental modelling to quantify alpha-linolenic acid conversion after longer term intake of multiple tracer boluses, J. Lipid. Res., 46, 1474, 10.1194/jlr.M400514-JLR200 Greiner, 1997, Brain docosahexaenoate accretion in fetal baboons, bioequivalence of dietary α-linolenic and docosahexaenoate acids, Pediatr. Res., 42, 826, 10.1203/00006450-199712000-00018 Groot, 2004, Effect of alpha linolenic acid supplementation during pregnancy on maternal and neonatal polyunsaturated fatty acid status and pregnancy outcome, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 79, 251, 10.1093/ajcn/79.2.251 Guisto, 2002, Age-associated changes in central nervous system glycerophospholipids composition and metabolism, Neurochem. Res., 27, 1513, 10.1023/A:1021604623208 Heird, 2005, The role of fatty acids in development, Annu. Rev. Nutr., 25, 549, 10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132254 Helland, 2001, Similar effects on infants of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids supplementation to pregnant and lactating women, Pediatrics, 108, E82, 10.1542/peds.108.5.e82 Helland, 2003, Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain-n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age, Pediatrics, 111, E39, 10.1542/peds.111.1.e39 Hibbeln, 2006, Healthy intakes of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids: estimations considering worldwide diversity, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 83, 1483, 10.1093/ajcn/83.6.1483S Hibbeln, 2007, Maternal seafood consumption in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood (ALSPAC study): an observational cohort study, Lancet, 369, 587, 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60277-3 Hrboticky, 1989, Effect of a linoleic acid infant formula feeding on brain synaptosomal lipid accretion and enzyme thermotropic behavior in the piglet, J. Lipid. Res., 30, 1173, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)38277-8 Hrboticky, 1990, Effect of vegetable oil formula rich in linoleic acid on tissue fatty acid accretion in brain, liver, plasma and erythrocytes of infant piglets, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 51, 173, 10.1093/ajcn/51.2.173 Hrboticky, 1991, Retina fatty acid composition of piglets fed from birth with a linoleic acid-rich vegetable-oil formula for infants, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 53, 483, 10.1093/ajcn/53.2.483 Innis, 1991, Essential fatty acids in growth and development, Prog. Lipid. Res., 30, 39, 10.1016/0163-7827(91)90006-Q Innis, 1992, Human milk and formula fatty acids, J. Pediatr., 120, S56, 10.1016/S0022-3476(05)81237-5 Innis, 2003, Perinatal biochemistry and physiology of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, J. Pediatr., 143, S1, 10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00396-2 Innis, 2004, Polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk: an essential role in infant development, Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 554, 27, 10.1007/978-1-4757-4242-8_5 Innis, 2005, Essential fatty acid metabolism during early development, 235, 10.1016/S1877-1823(09)70017-7 Innis, 2005, Essential fatty acid transfer and fetal development, Placenta, 26, S70, 10.1016/j.placenta.2005.01.005 Innis, 2007, Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development, J. Nutr., 137, 855, 10.1093/jn/137.4.855 Innis, 2001, Dietary fatty acid composition in pregnancy alters neurite membrane fatty acids and dopamine in newborn rat brain, J. Nutr., 131, 118, 10.1093/jn/131.1.118 Innis, 2008, Essential n-3 fatty acids among pregnant women and early visual acuity maturation in term infants, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 87, 548, 10.1093/ajcn/87.3.548 Innis, 2007, Dietary lipids in early development and intestinal inflammatory disease, Nutr. Rev., 65, S188, 10.1301/nr.2007.dec.S188-S193 Innis, 1999, Transcistrans, but not n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in plasma of breast-fed infants, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 70, 383, 10.1093/ajcn/70.3.383 Innis, 1996, Blood lipid docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid in term gestation infants fed formulas with high docosahexaenoic acid, low eicosapentaenoic acid fish oil, Lipids, 31, 617, 10.1007/BF02523832 Innis, 2001, Are human milk long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids related to visual and neural development in breast-fed term infants?, J. Pediatr., 139, 532, 10.1067/mpd.2001.118429 Innis, 2004, n-6 Docosapentaenoic acid is not a predictor of low docosahexaenoic acid status in Canadian preschool children, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 80, 768, 10.1093/ajcn/80.3.768 2002 Jensen, 1999, Lipids in human milk, Lipids, 34, 1243, 10.1007/s11745-999-0477-2 Jensen, 2005, Effects of maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake on visual function or neurodevelopment in breastfed term infants, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 82, 125, 10.1093/ajcn/82.1.125 Kalmijn, 2004, Dietary intake of fatty acids and fish in relation to cognitive performance at middle age, Neurology, 62, 275, 10.1212/01.WNL.0000103860.75218.A5 Kawakita, 2006, Docosahexaenoic acid promotes neurogenesis in vitro and in vivo, Neuroscience, 139, 991, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.01.021 Kritchevsky, 1998, History of recommendations to the public about dietary fat, J. Nutr., 128, 449S, 10.1093/jn/128.2.449S Lands, 1990, Quantitative effects of dietary polyunsaturated fats on the composition of fatty acids in rat tissues, Lipids, 25, 505, 10.1007/BF02537156 Lauritzen, 2004, Maternal fish oil supplementation in lactation: effect on infant visual acuity and n-3 fatty acid content in infant erythrocytes, Lipids, 39, 195, 10.1007/s11745-004-1220-8 Louie, 1991, Phospholipid molecular species from isolated bovine rod outer segments incorporate exogenous fatty acids at different rates, Exp. Eye Res., 53, 309, 10.1016/0014-4835(91)90235-7 Lim, 2005, An extra-ordinary degree of structural specificity is required in neural phospholipids for optimal brain function: n-6 docosahexaenoic acid substitution for docosahexaenoic acid leads to a loss in spatial task performance, J. Neurochem., 95, 848, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03427.x Makrides, 1993, Erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid correlates with the visual response of healthy, term infants, Pediatr. Res., 33, 425 Makrides, 1994, Fatty acid composition of brain, retina, and erythrocytes in breast- and formula-fed infants, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 60, 189, 10.1093/ajcn/60.2.189 Malcolm, 2003, Maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during pregnancy and visual evoked potential development in term infants: a double blind, prospective, randomized trial, Arch. Dis. Child., Fetal Neonat. Ed., 88, F383, 10.1136/fn.88.5.F383 Malerba, 2008, SNPs of the FADS gene cluster are associated with polyunsaturated fatty acids in a cohort of patients with cardiovascular disease, Lipids, 43, 288, 10.1007/s11745-008-3158-5 Martinez, 1992, Tissue levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids in early human development, J. Pediatr., 120, 129, 10.1016/S0022-3476(05)81247-8 Mohrhauer, 1963, The effect of dose level of essential fatty acids upon fatty acid composition of the rat liver, J. Lipid. Res., 4, 153 Morris, 2003, Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease, Arch. Neurol., 60, 940, 10.1001/archneur.60.7.940 Muller, 2002, LTP, memory and structural plasticity, Curr. Mol. Med., 2, 605, 10.2174/1566524023362041 Neuringer, 1986, Biochemical and functional effects of prenatal and postnatal w-3 fatty acid deficiency on retina and brain in rhesus monkeys, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 83, 4021, 10.1073/pnas.83.11.4021 Novak, 2008, High dietary omega 6 fatty acids contribute to reduced docosahexaenoate acid in the developing brain and inhibit secondary neurite growth, Brain Res., 1237, 136, 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.07.107 Nurk, 2007, Cognitive performance among the elderly and dietary fish intake: the Hordaland Health Study, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 86, 1470, 10.1093/ajcn/86.5.1470 Oken, 2005, Maternal fish consumption, hair mercury, and infant cognition in a U.S. cohort, Environ. Health Perspect., 113, 1376, 10.1289/ehp.8041 Ponder, 1992, Docosahexaenoic acid status of term infants fed breast milk or infant formula containing soy oil or corn oil, Pediatr. Res., 32, 683, 10.1203/00006450-199212000-00012 Pongrac, 2007, Dietary polyunsaturated fat that is low in (n-3) and high in (n-6) fatty acids alters the SNARE protein complex and nitrosylation in rat hippocampus, J. Nutr., 137, 1852, 10.1093/jn/137.8.1852 Pawlosky, 2001, Physiological compartmental analysis of alpha linolenic acid metabolism in adult humans, J. Lipid. Res., 42, 1257, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)31576-5 Putnam, 1982, The effect of variations in dietary fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of erythrocyte phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine in human infants, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 36, 106, 10.1093/ajcn/36.1.106 Rahm, 1964, Effect of linoleic acid upon the metabolism of linolenic acid, J. Nutr., 84, 15, 10.1093/jn/84.1.15 Reddy, 1994, The influence of maternal vegetarian diet on essential fatty acid status of the newborn, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 48, 358 Reisbick, 1986, Visual attention in infant monkeys: effects of dietary fatty acids and age, Dev. Psychol., 33, 387, 10.1037/0012-1649.33.3.387 Reisbick, 1994, Home cage behavior of rhesus monkeys with long-term deficiency of omega-3 fatty acids, Physiol. Behav., 55, 231, 10.1016/0031-9384(94)90128-7 Rotstein, 1987, Effects of aging on the composition and metabolism of docosahexaenoate-containing lipids of retina, Lipids, 22, 253, 10.1007/BF02533988 Sanders, 1978, Studies of vegans: the fatty acid composition of plasma choline phosphoglycerides, erythrocytes, adipose tissue, and breast milk, and some indicators of susceptibility to ischemic heart disease in vegans and omnivore controls, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 31, 805, 10.1093/ajcn/31.5.805 Sastry, 1985, Lipids of nervous tissue, composition and metabolism, Prog. Lipid Res., 24, 169, 10.1016/0163-7827(85)90011-6 Schaefer, 2006, Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: the Framingham Heart Study, Arch. Neurol., 63, 1545, 10.1001/archneur.63.11.1545 Schaeffer, 2006, Common genetic variants of the FADS1 FADS2 gene cluster and their reconstructed haplotypes are associated with the fatty acid composition in phospholipids, Hum. Mol. Genet., 15, 1745, 10.1093/hmg/ddl117 Simopoulos, 1999, Evolutionary aspects of omea-3 fatty acids in the food supply, Prostaglandins, Leukot, Essent. Fat. Acids, 60, 421, 10.1016/S0952-3278(99)80023-4 Soderberg, 1990, Lipid compositions of different regions of the human brain during aging, J. Neurochem., 54, 415, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1990.tb01889.x Sprecher, 1999, Regulation of the biosynthesis of 22:5n-6 and 22:6n-3: complex intracellular process, Lipids, 34, S153, 10.1007/BF02562271 Strokin, 2007, Prostaglandin synthesis in rat brain astrocytes is under the control of the n-3 docosahexaenoic acid, released by group VIB calcium-independent phospholipase A2, J. Neurochemistry., 102, 1771, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04663.x Svennerholm, 1968, Distribution and fatty acid composition of phosphoglycerides in normal brain, J. Lipid Res., 9, 570, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)42702-6 Tam, 2006, Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids in gestation alter fetal cortical phospholipids, fatty acids and phosphatidylserine synthesis, Dev. Neurosci., 28, 222, 10.1159/000091920 Tassoni, 2008, The role of eicosanoids in the brain, Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr., 17, 220 Uauy, 2006, Nutrition in brain development and aging: role of essential fatty acids, Nutr. Rev., 64, 524, 10.1301/nr.2006.may.S24-S33 Uauy, 2000, Jr. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid formation in neonates: effect of gestational age and intrauterine growth, Pediatr. Res., 47, 127, 10.1203/00006450-200001000-00022 Van Gelder, 2007, Fish consumption n-3 fatty acids, and subsequent 5-y cognitive decline in elderly men: the Zutphen Elderly Study, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 85, 1142, 10.1093/ajcn/85.4.1142 Wainwright, 2002, Dietary essential fatty acids and brain function: a developmental perspective on mechanisms, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 61, 61, 10.1079/PNS2001130 Wainwright, 1998, A saturated fat diet during development alters dendritic growth in mouse brain, Nutr. Neurosci., 1, 49, 10.1080/1028415X.1998.11747212 Ward, 1998, Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in formulae influence deposition of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid in brain and red blood cells of artificially reared neonatal rats, J. Nutr., 128, 2473 Williams, 2006, Long-chain n-3 PUFA: plant v marine sources, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 65, 42, 10.1079/PNS2005473 Williams, 2001, Stereoacuity at age 3.5 y in children born full-term is associated with parental and postnatal dietary factors: a report from a population-based cohort study, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 73, 316, 10.1093/ajcn/73.2.316 Wojcik, 2007, Regulation of membrane fusion in synaptic excitation–secretion coupling: speed and accuracy matter, Neuron, 55, 11, 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.06.013 Xie, L., Innis, S.M., in press. Genetic variants of the FADS1 FADS2 gene cluster are associated with altered n-6 and n-3 essential fatty acids in plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids in women during pregnancy and breast milk during lactation. J. Nutr.