The relationship between wasting and stunting: a retrospective cohort analysis of longitudinal data in Gambian children from 1976 to 2016

Black, 2008, Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences, Lancet., 371, 243, 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61690-0 Seckler, 1982, ‘Small but healthy’: a basic hypothesis in theory, measurement and policy of malnutrition Grantham-McGregor, 1999, Effects of health and nutrition on cognitive and behavioural development in children in the first three years of life: Part 1: Low birthweight, breastfeeding and protein-energy malnutrition, Food Nutr Bull., 20, 53, 10.1177/156482659902000107 Martorell, 2010, Weight gain in the first two years of life is an important predictor of schooling outcomes in pooled analyses from five birth cohorts from low- and middle-income countries, J Nutr., 140, 348, 10.3945/jn.109.112300 Angood, 2016, Research priorities on the relationship between wasting and stunting, PLoS One., 11, e0153221, 10.1371/journal.pone.0153221 Briend, 2015, Wasting and stunting—similarities and differences: policy and programmatic implications, Food Nutr Bull., 36, S15, 10.1177/15648265150361S103 Martorell, 2012, Patterns of stunting and wasting: potential explanatory factors, Adv Nutr., 3, 227, 10.3945/an.111.001107 Prentice, 2013, Critical windows for nutritional interventions against stunting, Am J Clin Nutr., 97, 911, 10.3945/ajcn.112.052332 Dewey, 2008, Systematic review of the efficacy and effectiveness of complementary feeding interventions in developing countries, Matern Child Nutr., 4, 24, 10.1111/j.1740-8709.2007.00124.x Dangour, 2013, Interventions to improve water quality and supply, sanitation and hygiene practices, and their effects on the nutritional status of children, Cochrane Database Syst Rev., CD009382 Richard, 2012, Wasting is associated with stunting in early childhood, J Nutr., 142, 1291, 10.3945/jn.111.154922 Khara, 2014 Hennig, 2017, Cohort profile: the Kiang West Longitudinal Population Study (KWLPS)—a platform for integrated research and health care provision in rural Gambia, Int J Epidemiol., 46, e13 Rayco-Solon, 2005, Differential effects of seasonality on preterm birth and intrauterine growth restriction in rural Africans, Am J Clin Nutr., 81, 134, 10.1093/ajcn/81.1.134 Nabwera, 2017, Growth faltering in rural Gambian children after four decades of interventions: a retrospective cohort study, Lancet Glob Health., 5, e208, 10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30355-2 Rayco-Solon, 2004, Fifty-year mortality trends in three rural African villages, Trop Med Int Health., 9, 1151, 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01325.x 2016 Wickham H, Francois R. dplyr: a grammar of data manipulation. In: R package, 2016. Available from: http:/CRAN.R-project.org/package=dplr. Bates, 2015, Fitting linear mixed effects models using lme4, J Stat Softw., 67, 1, 10.18637/jss.v067.i01 Wickham, 2009 de Onis, 2006, Comparison of the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards and the National Center for Health Statistics/WHO international growth reference: implications for child health programmes, Public Health Nutr., 9, 942, 10.1017/PHN20062005 Fulford, 2014, The coefficient of cyclic variation: a novel statistic to measure the magnitude of cyclic variation, Emerg Themes Epidemiol., 11, 15, 10.1186/1742-7622-11-15 de Onis, 2012, Prevalence and trends of stunting among pre-school children, 1990–2020, Public Health Nutr., 15, 142, 10.1017/S1368980011001315 Initiatives, 2017 Victora, 2008, Maternal and child undernutrition: consequences for adult health and human capital, Lancet., 371, 340, 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61692-4 Prentice, 2013, Growth faltering in low-income countries, World Rev Nutr Diet., 106, 90, 10.1159/000342563 Victora, 2010, Worldwide timing of growth faltering: revisiting implications for interventions, Pediatrics., 125, e473, 10.1542/peds.2009-1519 Khara, 2018, Children concurrently wasted and stunted: a meta-analysis of prevalence data of children 6–59 months from 84 countries, Matern Child Nutr., 14, e12516, 10.1111/mcn.12516 Eriksen, 2017, Following the World Health Organization’s recommendation of exclusive breastfeeding to 6 months of age does not impact the growth of rural Gambian infants, J Nutr., 147, 248, 10.3945/jn.116.241737 Davis, 2017, Growth and morbidity of Gambian infants are influenced by maternal milk oligosaccharides and infant gut microbiota, Sci Rep., 7, 40466, 10.1038/srep40466 Wamani, 2007, Boys are more stunted than girls in sub-Saharan Africa: a meta-analysis of 16 demographic and health surveys, BMC Pediatr., 7, 17, 10.1186/1471-2431-7-17 Wells, 2000, Natural selection and sex differences in morbidity and mortality in early life, J Theor Biol., 202, 65, 10.1006/jtbi.1999.1044 Eriksson, 2010, Boys live dangerously in the womb, Am J Hum Biol., 22, 330, 10.1002/ajhb.20995 Fledderjohann, 2014, Do girls have a nutritional disadvantage compared with boys? Statistical models of breastfeeding and food consumption inequalities among Indian siblings, PLoS One., 9, e107172, 10.1371/journal.pone.0107172 2013