Pre-EMTing metastasis? Recapitulation of morphogenetic processes in cancer

Springer Science and Business Media LLC - Tập 24 - Trang 587-597 - 2007
Geert Berx1,2, Eric Raspé1,2, Gerhard Christofori3, Jean Paul Thiery4, Jonathan P. Sleeman5
1Department for Molecular Biomedical Research, Molecular and Cellular Oncology, VIB, Ghent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium
2Department of Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium
3Institute of Biochemistry and Genetics, Department of Clinical-Biological Sciences (DKBW), Center for Biomedicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
4Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Singapore, Singapore
5Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Institut für Toxikologie und Genetik, Karlsruhe, Germany

Tóm tắt

EMT (epithelial–mesenchymal transition) is a morphogenetic process in which cells loose their epithelial characteristics and gain mesenchymal properties during embryogenesis. Similar processes regulated by similar pathways are recapitulated during tumour progression, endowing cells with invasive properties, thereby contributing to the formation of metastases. In this review, we outline key features of EMT and discuss the evidence for its involvement in the dissemination of tumours. Finally we review the recent literature concerning the mechanisms that regulate EMT in the tumour context, with a particular focus on breast cancer.

Tài liệu tham khảo

Thiery JP (2002) Epithelial–mesenchymal transitions in tumour progression. Nat Rev Cancer 2:442–454 Thiery JP, Sleeman JP (2006) Complex networks orchestrate epithelial–mesenchymal transitions. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 7:131–142 Martin P (1997) Wound healing – aiming for perfect skin regeneration. Science 276:75–81 Kalluri R, Neilson EG (2003) Epithelial–mesenchymal transition and its implications for fibrosis. J Clin Invest 112:1776–1784 Nguyen DX, Massague J (2007) Genetic determinants of cancer metastasis. Nat Rev Genet 8:341–352 Christ B, Ordahl CP (1995) Early stages of chick somite development. Anat Embryol (Berl) 191:381–396 Takahashi Y, Sato Y, Suetsugu R et al (2005) Mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition during somitic segmentation: a novel approach to studying the roles of Rho family GTPases in morphogenesis. Cells Tissues Organs 179:36–42 Horster MF, Braun GS, Huber SM (1999) Embryonic renal epithelia: induction, nephrogenesis, and cell differentiation. Physiol Rev 79:1157–1191 Vainio S, Lin Y (2002) Coordinating early kidney development: lessons from gene targeting. Nat Rev Genet 3:533–543 Christiansen JJ, Rajasekaran AK (2006) Reassessing epithelial to mesenchymal transition as a prerequisite for carcinoma invasion and metastasis. Cancer Res 66:8319–8326 Nollet F, Kools P, van Roy F (2000) Phylogenetic analysis of the cadherin superfamily allows identification of six major subfamilies besides several solitary members. J Mol Biol 299:551–572 Shin K, Fogg VC, Margolis B (2006) Tight junctions and cell polarity. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 22:207–235 Yin T, Green KJ (2004) Regulation of desmosome assembly and adhesion. Semin Cell Dev Biol 15:665–677 Aigner K, Dampier B, Descovich L et al (2007) The transcription factor ZEB1 (deltaEF1) promotes tumour cell dedifferentiation by repressing master regulators of epithelial polarity. Oncogene (Epub ahead of print) De Craene B, Gilbert B, Stove C et al (2005) The transcription factor snail induces tumor cell invasion through modulation of the epithelial cell differentiation program. Cancer Res 65:6237–6244 Ikenouchi J, Matsuda M, Furuse M et al (2003) Regulation of tight junctions during the epithelium-mesenchyme transition: direct repression of the gene expression of claudins/occludin by Snail. J Cell Sci 116:1959–1967 Moreno-Bueno G, Cubillo E, Sarrio D et al (2006) Genetic profiling of epithelial cells expressing e-cadherin repressors reveals a distinct role for snail, slug, and e47 factors in epithelial–mesenchymal transition. Cancer Res 66:9543–9556 Vandewalle C, Comijn J, De Craene B et al (2005) SIP1/ZEB2 induces EMT by repressing genes of different epithelial cell–cell junctions. Nucleic Acids Res 33:6566–6578 LaGamba D, Nawshad A, Hay ED (2005) Microarray analysis of gene expression during epithelial–mesenchymal transformation. Dev Dyn 234:132–142 Hay ED (2005) The mesenchymal cell, its role in the embryo, and the remarkable signaling mechanisms that create it. Dev Dyn 233:706–720 Andersen H, Mejlvang J, Mahmood S et al (2005) Immediate and delayed effects of E-cadherin inhibition on gene regulation and cell motility in human epidermoid carcinoma cells. Mol Cell Biol 25:9138–9150 Capaldo CT, Macara IG (2007) Depletion of E-cadherin disrupts establishment but not maintenance of cell junctions in Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cells. Mol Biol Cell 18:189–200 Neve RM, Chin K, Fridlyand J et al (2006) A collection of breast cancer cell lines for the study of functionally distinct cancer subtypes. Cancer Cell 10:515–527 Perou CM, Sorlie T, Eisen MB et al (2000) Molecular portraits of human breast tumours. Nature 406:747–752 van de Wetering M, Barker N, Harkes IC et al (2001) Mutant E-cadherin breast cancer cells do not display constitutive Wnt signaling. Cancer Res 61:278–284 Ferlicot S, Vincent-Salomon A, Medioni J et al (2004) Wide metastatic spreading in infiltrating lobular carcinoma of the breast. Eur J Cancer 40:336–341 Bierie B, Moses HL (2006) Tumour microenvironment: TGFbeta: the molecular Jekyll and Hyde of cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 6:506–520 Blume-Jensen P, Hunter T (2001) Oncogenic kinase signalling. Nature 411:355–365 Bolos V, Grego-Bessa J, de la Pompa JL (2007) Notch signaling in development and cancer. Endocr Rev 28:339–363 Clevers H (2006) Wnt/beta-catenin signaling in development and disease. Cell 127:469–480 Evangelista M, Tian H, de Sauvage FJ (2006) The hedgehog signaling pathway in cancer. Clin Cancer Res 12:5924–5928 Reya T, Clevers H (2005) Wnt signalling in stem cells and cancer. Nature 434:843–850 Siegel PM, Massague J (2003) Cytostatic and apoptotic actions of TGF-beta in homeostasis and cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 3:807–821 Huber MA, Kraut N, Beug H (2005) Molecular requirements for epithelial–mesenchymal transition during tumor progression. Curr Opin Cell Biol 17:548–558 Savagner P (2001) Leaving the neighborhood: molecular mechanisms involved during epithelial–mesenchymal transition. Bioessays 23:912–923 Berx G, Van Roy F (2001) The E-cadherin/catenin complex: an important gatekeeper in breast cancer tumorigenesis and malignant progression. Breast Cancer Res 3:289–293 Cano A, Perez-Moreno MA, Rodrigo I et al (2000) The transcription factor snail controls epithelial–mesenchymal transitions by repressing E-cadherin expression. Nat Cell Biol 2:76–83 Venkov CD, Link AJ, Jennings JL et al (2007) A proximal activator of transcription in epithelial–mesenchymal transition. J Clin Invest 117:482–491 Perez-Moreno MA, Locascio A, Rodrigo I et al (2001) A new role for E12/E47 in the repression of E-cadherin expression and epithelial–mesenchymal transitions. J Biol Chem 276:27424–27431 Mani SA, Yang J, Brooks M et al (2007) Mesenchyme Forkhead 1 (FOXC2) plays a key role in metastasis and is associated with aggressive basal-like breast cancers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:10069–10074 Hartwell KA, Muir B, Reinhardt F et al (2006) The Spemann organizer gene, Goosecoid, promotes tumor metastasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:18969–18974 Wu X, Chen H, Parker B et al (2006) HOXB7, a homeodomain protein, is overexpressed in breast cancer and confers epithelial–mesenchymal transition. Cancer Res 66:9527–9534 Comijn J, Berx G, Vermassen P et al (2001) The two-handed E box binding zinc finger protein SIP1 downregulates E-cadherin and induces invasion. Mol Cell 7:1267–1278 Battle MA, Konopka G, Parviz F et al (2006) Hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha orchestrates expression of cell adhesion proteins during the epithelial transformation of the developing liver. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:8419–8424 Hajra KM, Chen DY, Fearon ER (2002) The SLUG zinc-finger protein represses E-cadherin in breast cancer. Cancer Res 62:1613–1618 Yang J, Mani SA, Donaher JL et al (2004) Twist, a master regulator of morphogenesis, plays an essential role in tumor metastasis. Cell 117:927–939 Eger A, Aigner K, Sonderegger S et al (2005) DeltaEF1 is a transcriptional repressor of E-cadherin and regulates epithelial plasticity in breast cancer cells. Oncogene 24:2375–2385 Sleeman JP (2000) The lymph node as a bridgehead in the metastatic dissemination of tumors. Recent Results Cancer Res 157:55–81 Peinado H, Marin F, Cubillo E et al (2004) Snail and E47 repressors of E-cadherin induce distinct invasive and angiogenic properties in vivo. J Cell Sci 117:2827–2839 Korsching E, Packeisen J, Liedtke C et al (2005) The origin of vimentin expression in invasive breast cancer: epithelial–mesenchymal transition, myoepithelial histogenesis or histogenesis from progenitor cells with bilinear differentiation potential? J Pathol 206:451–457 Petersen OW, Nielsen HL, Gudjonsson T et al (2003) Epithelial to mesenchymal transition in human breast cancer can provide a nonmalignant stroma. Am J Pathol 162:391–402 Tarin D, Thompson EW, Newgreen DF (2005) The fallacy of epithelial mesenchymal transition in neoplasia. Cancer Res 65:5996–6000; discussion 6000–5991 De Craene B, van Roy F, Berx G (2005) Unraveling signalling cascades for the Snail family of transcription factors. Cell Signal 17:535–547 Valcourt U, Kowanetz M, Niimi H et al (2005) TGF-beta and the Smad signaling pathway support transcriptomic reprogramming during epithelial–mesenchymal cell transition. Mol Biol Cell 16:1987–2002 Zavadil J, Bitzer M, Liang D et al (2001) Genetic programs of epithelial cell plasticity directed by transforming growth factor-beta. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:6686–6691 Jechlinger M, Sommer A, Moriggl R et al (2006) Autocrine PDGFR signaling promotes mammary cancer metastasis. J Clin Invest 116:1561–1570 Huber MA, Azoitei N, Baumann B et al (2004) NF-kappaB is essential for epithelial–mesenchymal transition and metastasis in a model of breast cancer progression. J Clin Invest 114:569–581 Dong M, How T, Kirkbride KC et al (2007) The type III TGF-beta receptor suppresses breast cancer progression. J Clin Invest 117:206–217 Eccles SA, Welch DR (2007) Metastasis: recent discoveries and novel treatment strategies. Lancet 369:1742–1757 Karin M (2006) Nuclear factor-kappaB in cancer development and progression. Nature 441:431–436 Moody SE, Perez D, Pan TC et al (2005) The transcriptional repressor Snail promotes mammary tumor recurrence. Cancer Cell 8:197–209 Wilmut I, Schnieke AE, McWhir J et al (1997) Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells. Nature 385:810–813 Slack JM (2007) Metaplasia and transdifferentiation: from pure biology to the clinic. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 8:369–378 Takahashi K, Yamanaka S (2006) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 126:663–676 Wernig M, Meissner A, Foreman R et al (2007) In vitro reprogramming of fibroblasts into a pluripotent ES-cell-like state. Nature 448:318–324 Hendrix MJ, Seftor EA, Seftor RE et al (2007) Reprogramming metastatic tumour cells with embryonic microenvironments. Nat Rev Cancer 7:246–255 Xue C, Plieth D, Venkov C et al (2003) The gatekeeper effect of epithelial–mesenchymal transition regulates the frequency of breast cancer metastasis. Cancer Res 63:3386–3394 Derksen PW, Liu X, Saridin F et al (2006) Somatic inactivation of E-cadherin and p53 in mice leads to metastatic lobular mammary carcinoma through induction of anoikis resistance and angiogenesis. Cancer Cell 10:437–449 Wicki A, Lehembre F, Wick N et al (2006) Tumor invasion in the absence of epithelial–mesenchymal transition: podoplanin-mediated remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton. Cancer Cell 9:261–272 Friedl P, Hegerfeldt Y, Tusch M (2004) Collective cell migration in morphogenesis and cancer. Int J Dev Biol 48:441–449 Friedl P, Wolf K (2003) Tumour-cell invasion and migration: diversity and escape mechanisms. Nat Rev Cancer 3:362–374 Friedl P, Wolf K (2003) Proteolytic and non-proteolytic migration of tumour cells and leucocytes. Biochem Soc Symp (70):277–285 Wolf K, Friedl P (2006) Molecular mechanisms of cancer cell invasion and plasticity. Br J Dermatol 154(Suppl 1):11–15 Barrallo-Gimeno A, Nieto MA (2005) The Snail genes as inducers of cell movement and survival: implications in development and cancer. Development 132:3151–3161 Thuault S, Valcourt U, Petersen M et al (2006) Transforming growth factor-beta employs HMGA2 to elicit epithelial–mesenchymal transition. J Cell Biol 174:175–183 Mironchik Y, Winnard PT Jr, Vesuna F et al (2005) Twist overexpression induces in vivo angiogenesis and correlates with chromosomal instability in breast cancer. Cancer Res 65:10801–10809 Bissell MJ, Radisky D (2001) Putting tumours in context. Nat Rev Cancer 1:46–54 Radisky DC, Levy DD, Littlepage LE et al (2005) Rac1b and reactive oxygen species mediate MMP-3-induced EMT and genomic instability. Nature 436:123–127 Sternlicht MD, Lochter A, Sympson CJ et al (1999) The stromal proteinase MMP3/stromelysin-1 promotes mammary carcinogenesis. Cell 98:137–146 Yang L, Lin C, Zhao S et al (2007) Phosphorylation of p68 RNA helicase plays a role in platelet-derived growth factor-induced cell proliferation by up-regulating cyclin D1 and c-Myc expression. J Biol Chem 282:16811–16819 Kim HJ, Litzenburger BC, Cui X et al (2007) Constitutively active type I insulin-like growth factor receptor causes transformation and xenograft growth of immortalized mammary epithelial cells and is accompanied by an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition mediated by NF-kappaB and snail. Mol Cell Biol 27:3165–3175 Lopez T, Hanahan D (2002) Elevated levels of IGF-1 receptor convey invasive and metastatic capability in a mouse model of pancreatic islet tumorigenesis. Cancer Cell 1:339–353 Yook JI, Li XY, Ota I et al (2006) A Wnt-Axin2-GSK3beta cascade regulates Snail1 activity in breast cancer cells. Nat Cell Biol 8:1398–1406 Imanishi Y, Hu B, Jarzynka MJ et al (2007) Angiopoietin-2 stimulates breast cancer metastasis through the alpha(5)beta(1) integrin-mediated pathway. Cancer Res 67:4254–4263 Waerner T, Alacakaptan M, Tamir I et al (2006) ILEI: a cytokine essential for EMT, tumor formation, and late events in metastasis in epithelial cells. Cancer Cell 10:227–239 Grunert S, Jechlinger M, Beug H (2003) Diverse cellular and molecular mechanisms contribute to epithelial plasticity and metastasis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 4:657–665 Janda E, Lehmann K, Killisch I et al (2002) Ras and TGF[beta] cooperatively regulate epithelial cell plasticity and metastasis: dissection of Ras signaling pathways. J Cell Biol 156:299–313 Zhu Y, Xu G, Patel A et al (2002) Cloning, expression, and initial characterization of a novel cytokine-like gene family. Genomics 80:144–150 Brabletz T, Jung A, Spaderna S et al (2005) Opinion: migrating cancer stem cells – an integrated concept of malignant tumour progression. Nat Rev Cancer 5:744–749 Breiteneder-Geleff S, Soleiman A, Kowalski H et al (1999) Angiosarcomas express mixed endothelial phenotypes of blood and lymphatic capillaries: podoplanin as a specific marker for lymphatic endothelium. Am J Pathol 154:385–394 Wicki A, Christofori G (2007) The potential role of podoplanin in tumour invasion. Br J Cancer 96:1–5 Scholl FG, Gamallo C, Vilaro S et al (1999) Identification of PA2.26 antigen as a novel cell-surface mucin-type glycoprotein that induces plasma membrane extensions and increased motility in keratinocytes. J Cell Sci 112(Pt 24):4601–4613 Martin-Villar E, Scholl FG, Gamallo C et al (2005) Characterization of human PA2.26 antigen (T1alpha-2, podoplanin), a small membrane mucin induced in oral squamous cell carcinomas. Int J Cancer 113:899–910 Martin-Villar E, Megias D, Castel S et al (2006) Podoplanin binds ERM proteins to activate RhoA and promote epithelial–mesenchymal transition. J Cell Sci 119:4541–4553 Kunita A, Kashima TG, Morishita Y et al (2007) The platelet aggregation-inducing factor aggrus/podoplanin promotes pulmonary metastasis. Am J Pathol 170:1337–1347 Dalerba P, Cho RW, Clarke MF (2007) Cancer stem cells: models and concepts. Annu Rev Med 58:267–284 Balic M, Lin H, Young L et al (2006) Most early disseminated cancer cells detected in bone marrow of breast cancer patients have a putative breast cancer stem cell phenotype. Clin Cancer Res 12:5615–5621 Dontu G, Al-Hajj M, Abdallah WM et al (2003) Stem cells in normal breast development and breast cancer. Cell Prolif 36(Suppl 1):59–72 Sheridan C, Kishimoto H, Fuchs RK et al (2006) CD44+/CD24− breast cancer cells exhibit enhanced invasive properties: an early step necessary for metastasis. Breast Cancer Res 8:R59 Shipitsin M, Campbell LL, Argani P et al (2007) Molecular definition of breast tumor heterogeneity. Cancer Cell 11:259–273 Sleeman KE, Kendrick H, Ashworth A et al (2006) CD24 staining of mouse mammary gland cells defines luminal epithelial, myoepithelial/basal and non-epithelial cells. Breast Cancer Res 8:R7