‘Manage and mitigate punitive regulatory measures, enhance the corporate image, influence public policy’: industry efforts to shape understanding of tobacco-attributable deforestation
Tóm tắt
Deforestation due to tobacco farming began to raise concerns in the mid 1970s. Over the next 40 years, tobacco growing increased significantly and shifted markedly to low- and middle-income countries. The percentage of deforestation caused by tobacco farming reached 4 % globally by the early 2000s, although substantially higher in countries such as China (18 %), Zimbabwe (20 %), Malawi (26 %) and Bangladesh (>30 %). Transnational tobacco companies (TTCs) have argued that tobacco-attributable deforestation is not a serious problem, and that the industry has addressed the issue through corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. After reviewing the existing scholarly literature on tobacco and deforestation, we analysed industry sources of public information to understand how the industry framed deforestation, its key causes, and policy responses. To analyse industry strategies between the 1970s and early 2000s to shape understanding of deforestation caused by tobacco farming and curing, the Truth Tobacco Documents Library was systematically searched. The above sources were compiled and triangulated, thematically and chronologically, to derive a narrative of how the industry has framed the problem of, and solutions to, tobacco-attributable deforestation. The industry sought to undermine responses to tobacco-attributable deforestation by emphasising the economic benefits of production in LMICs, blaming alternative causes, and claiming successful forestation efforts. To support these tactics, the industry lobbied at the national and international levels, commissioned research, and colluded through front groups. There was a lack of effective action to address tobacco-attributable deforestation, and indeed an escalation of the problem, during this period. The findings suggest the need for independent data on the varied environmental impacts of the tobacco industry, awareness of how the industry seeks to work with environmental researchers and groups to further its interests, and increased scrutiny of tobacco industry efforts to influence environmental policy.
Tài liệu tham khảo
World Wildlife Fund. Global Network Position: Deforestation-free production and finance, Position Paper. 2015.
FAO. State of the World’s Forests. Rome: FAO; 2012.
Johnson T. Deforestation and Greenhouse-Gas emissions. New York: Council on Foreign Relations; 2009.
Geist H, Lambin E. Proximate causes and underlying driving forces of tropical deforestation. Bioscience. 2002;52(2):143–50.
Lecours N, Almeida G, Abdallah J, Novotny T. Environmental health impacts of tobacco farming: a review of the literature. Tob Control. 2012;21(2):191–6.
Jacobs R, et al. The supply-side effects of tobacco control policies. In: Jha P, Chaloupka F, editors. Tobacco control in developing countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2000.
FAO. Projection of tobacco production, consumption and trade for the year 2010. Rome: FAO; 2003.
Geist H. Global assessment of deforestation related to tobacco farming. Tob Control. 1999;8:18–28.
Geist H, Kapito J, Otañez M. The Tobacco Industry in Malawi: a globalized driver of local land change. In: Jepson W, Millington A, editors. Land change modifications in the developing world. Berlin: Springer; 2008. p. 251–68.
FAO. Global forest resources assessment 2010. Rome: FAO; 2010.
Otanez M. Tobacco Related Deforestation in Malawi. n.d. https://archive.org/details/MartyOtanezTobaccoRelatedDeforestationinMalawi.
Efroyman D. FitzGerald S. Tobacco and Poverty: observations from India and Bangladesh. Canada: Path Canada; 2003.
BAT. Natural resources. 2015. Retrieved from http://www.bat.com/group/sites/UK__9D9KCY.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/DO9QEFMY.
PMI. Enhancing Rural Livelihoods, Malawi. 2015. Retrieved from http://www.pmi.com/eng/sustainability/good_agricultural_practices/pages/environmental_sustainability.aspx.
Imperial Tobacco. Forestry preservation. 2015. Retrieved from http://www.imperialbrandsplc.com/Responsibility/Respecting-natural-resources.
Bero L. Tobacco industry manipulation of research. Public Health Rep. 2005;120(2):200–8.
Goodman J. Tobacco in history: the cultures of dependence. London: Routledge; 2005.
WHO. Economically sustainable alternatives to tobacco growing, Report of the Working Group. Conference of the Parties to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, 5th Session, Seoul, 17 July 2012.
Cairney P, Studlar D, Mamudu H. Global tobacco control: power, policy, governance and transfer. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2012.
World Lung Foundation. The tobacco atlas. Washington: World Lung Foundation; 2015.
van Donge J. Disordering the Market: the Liberalisation of Burley Tobacco in Malawi in the 1990s. J South Afr Stud. 2002;28(1):89–115.
FAO. Issues in the global tobacco economy: selected case studies. Rome: FAO; 2003.
Saloojee Y. Tobacco in Africa: more than a health threat. In: Boyle P, Gray N, Henningfield J, Seffrin J, Zatonski W, editors. Tobacco and public health: science and policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2004. p. 267–77.
Jaffee S. Malawi’s tobacco sector. Washington: World Bank African Region Working Paper Series No. 55; 2003.
Otañez M, Mamudu H, Glantz S. Global leaf companies control the tobacco market in Malawi. Tob Control. 2007;16(4):261–9.
Mangora M. Shifting cultivation, wood use and deforestation attributes of tobacco farming in Urambo District, Tanzania. Curr Res J Soc Sc. 2012;4(2):135–40.
WHO. Controlling the Smoking Epidemic. Report of the WHO Expert Committee on Smoking Control, Geneva, 1979.
Lamb R. Save the rain forests. Bulletin of the IUCN. 1980;11(5):17–32.
Muller M. Tobacco in the Third World: tomorrow’s epidemic? London: War on Want; 1976.
BAT. BAT Industries External Affairs Committee: Follow Up to the EIU Study on Tobacco in the Developing World. nd. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/iwh18a99/pdf
Mostyn J. Economist intelligence unit study: leaf tobacco - its contribution to the economic and social development of the third world. 1980. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/sbx50a99/pdf.
Hargrove G. Report and recommendations to the executive committee on threats to the industry in the third or developing world. 1980. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gla29d00/pdf.
Lockhart C. Economist intelligence unit study: “Leaf Tobacco - Its Contribution to the Economic and Social Development of the Third World”. March 6 [online]. 1980. Available online at: http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/psp94a99/pdf.
Doyle J. Economist intelligence unit study, “Leaf Tobacco - Its Contribution to the Economic and Social Development of the Third World, International Committee on Smoking Issues. 1980. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/yha56e00/pdf.
Hill and Knowlton. Leaf tobacco: its contribution to the Economic and Social Development of the Third World. nd. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/zdc44a99/pdf.
BAT. The Role of Tobacco and Comparable Cash Crops in Rural Development in Selected Low Income Countries. 1983. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ujk50a99/pdf.
Ely R. File Note. 1983. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/bhc44a99/pdf.
Maxwell H. Draft speech for Hamish Maxwell, Marketing Meeting. 1983. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/nyz24e00/pdf.
Mercer P. Basic presentation to Minister of Agriculture. Imperial Tobacco. 1984. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/dac44a99/pdf.
Ely R. Hauser Project. 1983. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hgc44a99/pdf.
BAT. Transcript regarding contributions to the UN. nd. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/dfc44a99/pdf.
BAT. Tobacco: Creating Wealth in the Developing World. nd. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/zjk50a99/pdf.
RJR. Report on Fifth World Conference on Smoking and Health. 1983. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/puq59d00.
Madeley J. Kenya’s trees go up in smoke - for smokers. International Agricultural Development. 1984. Available online at, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ygq87a99/pdf.
Chapman S. Tobacco and deforestation in the developing world. Tob Control. 1993;3(3):191–3.
Ely R, Leach M. Winnipeg, summary of recommendations. BAT. 1983. Retrieved from https://www.industrydocumentslibrary.ucsf.edu/tobacco/docs/#id=hkxf0209.
Ely R. Notes on Visit to Rome on 6th and 7th March 1986, with Niki Hauser. 10 March 1986. 1986. Retrieved from https://industrydocuments.library.ucsf.edu/tobacco/docs/#id=jgjj0201.
McInerney J. [Letter to Robert Ely]. 1983. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/tec44a99.
Ely R. [Letter to J. McInerney]. 1983. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/oec44a99/pdf.
ITGA. Who we are and what we do. 2015. Retrieved from www.tobaccoleaf.org/.
Bloxcidge J. International Tobacco Growers Association (ITGA). Infotab. 1988. Retrieved from https://industrydocuments.library.ucsf.edu/tobacco/docs/#id=pxxh0203.
International Forest Science Consultancy. The use of wood by the tobacco industry and the ecological implications. 1986. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/mjk50a99/pdf.
Kloepfer W. [Letter to B. Simpson]. 1983. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/foo29b00/pdf.
Ely R. [Letter to A. Fraser]. 1984b. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/cac44a99/pdf.
Fraser A. The Ecological, Social and Economic Implication of the Use of Wood by the Tobacco Industries, International Forest Science Consultancy. 1984. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/dzo31a99/pdf.
Fraser A. [Letter to R. Ely]. 1984. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/azo31a99/pdf.
Ely R. Afforestation study. 1984. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wzb44a99/pdf.
Taylor R. Infotab - Thailand. 1985. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/blc44a99/pdf.
Drummond P. Wood fuel survey. 1985. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/kyb44a99/pdf.
Fraser A. [Letter to R. Taylor]. 1984. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vzb44a99/pdf.
Fraser A. [Letter to R. Ely]. 1984. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/tzb44a99/pdf.
Cooper D. [Letter to Alistair Fraser]. 1984. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/yzb44a99/pdf.
Fraser A. [Letter to R. Ely]. 1985. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/jxb44a99/pdf.
Ely R. [Telegram to Peter Hazel on Zimbabwe]. 1984. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xzb44a99/pdf.
Ely R. [Telegram to Mr. Siqueira on Brazil]. 1985. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vxb44a99/pdf.
Ely R. INFOTAB Wood Fuel Survey [Letter to Robin Gilderdale]. 1985. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/dyb44a99/pdf.
INFOTAB. Minutes of an Industry Meeting held at the INFOTAB Secretariat - Brussels. 1986. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/rjc44a99/pdf.
Wholey D. Anti-Tobacco Article in Development Forum. 1989. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wxh18a99/pdf.
ITGA. Tobacco Forum - RIO Date for UN Environment Conference. 1991. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gqe28a99/pdf.
Fraser A. [Letter to Editor]. 1989. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/mgo71a99/pdf.
Ely R. [Letter to D. Wholey]. 1989. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vxh18a99/pdf.
Oldman M. Tobacco Forum. 1991. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ooz69b00/pdf.
King T. ITGA Atlas. 1990. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ifq52f00/pdf.
BAT. Question and answer brief. nd. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ydh27b00/pdf.
Campbell J. Tobacco and the environment: the continuous reduction of worldwide energy source use for green leaf curing. Beitr Tabakforsch Int. 1995;16(3):107–17.
Johnson A. The use of woodfuel for curing tobacco. 1997. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/yzq42c00/pdf.
Ely R. Wood fuel study. 1987. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/laj51a99/pdf.
PMI. Corporate affairs presentation. 1991. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/zxh42e00/pdf.
Bacon D. [Facsimile to Martin Riordan]. 1995. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ykl43a99.
Waluye J. Environmental impact of tobacco growing in Tabora/Urambo, Tanzania. Tob Control. 1994;3(3):252–4.
Muwanga-Bayego H. Tobacco growing in Uganda: the environment and women pay the price. Tob Control. 1994;3(3):255–6.
Kweyuh P. Tobacco expansion in Kenya - the socio-ecological losses. Tob Control. 1994;3(3):248–51.
BAT. The Agro-Tobacco Programme. 1991. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ghk47a99/pdf.
Oldman M. Agro-tobacco services, proposed plan. 1991. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/eqe18a99/pdf.
Oldman M. Agro-tobacco services. 1991. Retrieved from https://industrydocuments.library.ucsf.edu/tobacco/docs/#id=lych0196.
Oldman M. Activity Report July 1993. 1993. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gne18a99/pdf.
Panos Institute. Tobacco: the smoke blows South. London: Panos Institute; 1994.
Aliro O. Uganda: paying the price of growing tobacco. London: Panos Institute; 1993.
Oldman M. [Letter to S. Opukah]. 1995. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hwe17a99/pdf.
Institute T. Tobacco in the developing nations. 1980. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/omf44b00/pdf.
Cullman H. Partners in progress: a report on Philip Morris in the developing countries. 1977. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ksk68e00.
Tobacco Institute. Rails raise domestic leaf rate. 1979. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/qri30g00/pdf.
Ceylon Tobacco Company Limited. Serving the community. 1980. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xtn26a99/pdf.
Bowling JC. Corporate affairs status reports. 1983. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/pep02a00/pdf.
Jungbluth G. A vital part of Brazil’s tobacco program: reforestation, Tobacco International. 1984. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hii47a99/pdf.
Chagula WK. [Letter to Bernhard Hauser]. 1985. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/uxb44a99/pdf.
Agriconsult. The economic impact of the tobacco industry in Kenya. Nairobi: Moi University; 1991.
Opukah S. Commonwealth Institute Conference on Kenya. 1993. Retrieved from https://industrydocuments.library.ucsf.edu/tobacco/docs/#id=ttjf0194.
BAT. BAT Industries Afforestation and Woodfuel Survey 1994. 1994. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/knn63a99/pdf.
Walder D. HEA advertisements. 1993. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/gbu30a99/pdf.
BAT. Deforestation. nd. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ufd51a99/pdf.
Luke J, Viassenbroeck R. British-American tobacco: environmental, health & safety report 1999. 1999. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/mli23a99/pdf.
Opukah S. Thoughts on Global CSR Programmes. 1999b. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vak23a99/pdf.
Kiberu J. Afforestation week. 1999. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ztj23a99/pdf.
Gretton K. Visit to Arua. 1999. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/nuj23a99/pdf.
Beresford-Stooke L. [Letter to Shabanji Opukah]. 2000. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/swk24a99/pdf.
ITGA. Tobacco Growers - Issues Papers. 1996. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/aqc04a99/pdf.
Parirewa P. Corporate social responsibility. 1999. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/hbk23a99/pdf.
BAT Biodiversity Partnership. Who we are. 2015. Retrieved from http://www.batbiodiversity.org/groupms/sites/BAT_8A7ED8.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/DO8A9FEU?opendocument.
Madeley J. British American Tobacco: the smokescreen. In: Madeley J, editor. Hungry for Power. London: UK Food Group; 1999.
Geist H, Chang K, Eteges V, Abdallah J. Tobacco growers at the cross-roads: towards a comparison of diversification and ecosystem impacts. Land Use Policy. 2009;26(4):1066–79.
Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids. Golden Leaf, Barren Harvest. Washington: Campaign for Tobacco Free Kiids; 1999.
WHO. Tobacco increases the poverty of countries. 2004. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/tobacco/communications/events/wntd/2004/en/factsnations_en.pdf.
Bates C, Karugaba P, Kozak J, Kralikova E, Szilagyi T. Alliance bulletin. 2002. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/bcm10c00/pdf.
Sauer J, Abdallah J. Forest diversity, tobacco production and resource management in Tanzania. Forest Policy Econ. 2007;9:421–39.
Kweyuh P. [Statement by Africa Tobacco Media Programme]. 2000. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/myb53a99/pdf.
Pain A, Hancock I, Eden-Green S, Everett B. Research and Evidence Collection on Issues Related to Articles 17 and 18 of the Framework Convention on. 2012.
BAT. Natural Resources. Ensuring long-term agricultural resources. nd. Retrieved from http://www.bat.com/group/sites/uk__9d9kcy.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/DO9QEFMY?opendocument.
PMI. Environmental Sustainability. nd. Retrieved from http://www.pmi.com/eng/sustainability/good_agricultural_practices/pages/environmental_sustainability.aspx.
JTI. A growing reforestation program. nd. Retrieved from http://www.jti.com/in-focus/growing-reforestation-program/.
Sutton Anders R. Sweet Solution, Tobacco Reporter. 2014. Retrieved from http://www.tobaccoreporter.com/tag/reforestation/.
Kmietowicz Z. Tobacco company claims that smokers help the economy. BMJ. 2001;323(7305):126.
Petticrew M, Lee K. The ‘Father of Stress” meets “Big Tobacco”: Hans Selye and the tobacco industry”. Am J Public Health. 2011;101(3):411–18.
Hirschhorn N. Corporate social responsibility and the tobacco industry: hope or hype? Tob Control. 2004;13(4):447–53.
Apollonio D, Bero L. The Creation of Industry Front Groups: the Tobacco Industry and “get government off our back”. Am J Public Health. 2007;97(3):419–27.
Schick S, Glantz S. Old ways, new means: tobacco industry funding of academic and private sector scientists since the master settlement agreement. Tob Control. 2007;16(3):157–64.
PM. Executive Summary of Paper on PM Environmental Giving. 1994. Retrieved from http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/rrd32c00/pdf.
Damalas C, Georgiou E, Theodorou M. Pesticide use and safety practices among Greek tobacco farmers: a survey. Int J Environ Health Res. 2006;16(5):339–48.
Tobin R, Knausenberger W. Dilemmas of development: burley tobacco, the environment and economic growth in Malawi. J South Afr Stud. 1998;24(2):405–24.
McIntosh N, Clark N, Howatt W. Reducing tobacco smoke in the environment of the child with asthma: a cotinine-assisted, minimal-contact intervention. J Asthma. 1994;31(6):453–62.
Slaughter E, Gersberg R, Watanabe K, Rudolph J, Stransky C, Novotny T. Toxicity of cigarette butts, and their chemical components, to marine and freshwater fish. Tob Control. 2011;20(S1):i25–9.
McDaniel P, Malone R. British American Tobacco’s partnership with Earthwatch Europe and its implications for public health. Glob Public Health. 2011;7(1):1–15.
Kamieniecki S. Corporate America and environmental policy: how often does business get its way? Stanford: Stanford University Press; 2006.
Levy D, Egan D. Capital contests: national and transnational channels of corporate influence on the climate change negotiations. Politics and Society. 1998;26(3):337–61.
Clapp J, Fuchs D, editors. Corporate Power in Global Agrifood Governance. Cambridge: MIT Press; 2009.