Working with Parents and Children Separated at the Border: Examining the Impact of the Zero Tolerance Policy and beyond

6 U.S. Code § 279(g) (2012).

Adams, D. W. (1995). Education for extinction: American Indians and the boarding school experience, 1875–1928. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.

Ainsworth, M. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709–716.

Allen, B., Cisneros, E. M., & Tellez, A. (2015). The children left behind: The impact of parental deportation on mental health. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 386–392.

American Academy of Pediatrics. (2018). AAP Statement on executive order on family separation. Retrieved from: https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/Pages/AAP-Statement-on-Executive-Order-on-Family-Separation.aspx .

American Civil Liberties Union. (2016). J.E.F.M. V Lynch. Retrieved from https://www.aclu.org/cases/jefm-v-lynch

American Immigration Council. (2015). A guide to children arriving at the border: Laws, policies and responses. Special Report. Retrieved from https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/sites/default/files/research/a_guide_to_children_arriving_at_the_border_and_the_laws_and_policies_governing_our_response.pdf

American Immigration Council. (2017). A primer on expedited removal. Retrieved from https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/primer-expedited-removal

American Immigration Lawyers Association. (2014a). AILA statement for house judiciary committee hearing on unaccompanied children. Doc. No. 14062447. Retrieved fromhttps:// www.aila.org/infonet/aila-statement-house-judiciary-hearing-on-uacs .

American Immigration Lawyers Association. (2014b). AILA recommendations on legal standards and protections for unaccompanied children. Doc. No. 14070847. Retrieved from https://aila.org/infonet/recommendations-legal-standards-protections-uacs .

American Psychological Association. (May, 2018). Statement of APA president regarding the traumatic effects of separating immigrant families. Retrieved from: https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2018/05/separating-immigrant-families

Amuedo-dorantes, C., Pozo, S., & Puttitanun, T. (2015). Immigration enforcement, parent-child separations, and intent to remigrate by central American deportees. Demography, 52, 1825–1851.

Belskey, J., & Fearon, R. M. (2002). Early attachment security, subsequent maternal sensitivity, and later child development: Does continuity in development depend upon continuity of caregiving? Attachment and Human Development, 4, 361–387.

Bowlby, J. (1973). Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.

Brown, D. W., Anda, R. F., Tiemeier, H., Felitti, V. J., Edwards, V. J., Croft, J. B., & Giles, W. H. (2009). Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of premature mortality. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 37, 389–396.

Bryant, R. A., Creamer, M., O’Donnell, M., Forbes, D., Felmingham, K. L., Silove, D., Malhi, G., van Hoof, M., McFarlanes, A. C., & Nickerson, A. (2017). Separation from parents during childhood trauma predicts adult attachment security and post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 47, 2028–2035.

Burnett, J. (2018). Overwhelmed customs and border protection halts ‘zero tolerance’ for migrants. National Public Radio. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2018/06/26/623451388/trumps-zero-tolerance-policy-overwhelms-border-agents

Carswell, K., Blackburn, P., & Barker, C. (2011). The relationship between trauma, post-migration problems and the psychological well-being of refugees and asylum seekers. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 57, 107–119.

Congressional Research Service. (2018). An overview of U.S. immigration laws regulating the admission and exclusion of aliens at the border. Retrieved from https://fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/LSB10150.pdf

Contreras, J. M., Kerns, K. A., Weimer, B. L., Gentzler, A. L., & Tomich, P. L. (2000). Emotion regulation as a mediator of associations between mother-child attachment and peer relationships in middle childhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 111–124.

De Haene, L., Grietens, H., & Verschueren, K. (2010). Adult attachment in the context of refugee traumatisation: The impact of organized violence and forced separation on parental states of mind regarding attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 12, 249–264.

Deblinger, E., Behl, L. E., & Glickman, A. R. (2012). Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for children who have experienced sexual abuse. In P. C. Kendall (Ed.), Child and adolescent therapy: Cognitive-behavioral procedures (pp. 345–375). New York: Guilford Press.

Dudley, M., Steel, Z., Mares, S., & Newman, L. (2012). Children and young people in immigration detention. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 25, 285–292.

Eguizábal, C., Ingram, M. C., Curtis, K. M., Korthuis, A., Olson, E. L., & Phillips, N. (2015). Crime and violence in Central America’s northern triangle: How U.S. policy responses are helping, hurting and can be improved. Retrieved from Woodrow Wilson Center website: https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/FINAL%20PDF_CARSI%20REPORT_0.pdf .

Examining the Failures of the Trump Administration’s Inhumane Family Separation Policy. (2019). Hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce. 116th Cong. Retrieved from https://energycommerce.house.gov/committee-activity/hearings/hearing-on-examining-the-failures-of-the-trump-administration-s-inhumane

Famularo, R., Barnum, R., & Stone, K. (1986). Court-ordered removal in severe child maltreatment: An association to parental major affective disorder. Child Abuse & Neglect, 10, 487–492.

Felitti, V. (2009). Adverse childhood experiences and adult health. Academy of Pediatrics, 9, 131–132.

Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). The relationship of adult health status to childhood abuse and household dysfunction. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14, 245–258.

Fitzpatrick, M., & Orloff, L. (2016). Abused, abandoned, or neglected: Legal options for recent immigrant women and girls. Journal of Law and International Affairs, 4, 614–685.

Gindling, T., & Poggio, S. (2008). Family separation and reunification as a factor in the educational success of immigrant children. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 38, 9–104.

Goodvin, R., Meyer, S., Thompson, R. A., & Hayes, R. (2008). Self-understanding in early childhood: Associations with child attachment security and maternal negative affect. Attachment and Human Development, 10, 433–450.

Greenberg, J. R., & Mitchell, S. A. (1983). Object relations in psychoanalytic theory. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Gulbas, L. E., Zayas, L. H., Yoon, H., Szlyk, H., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., & Natera, G. (2016). Deportation experiences and depression among U.S. Citizen-children with undocumented Mexican parents. Child: Care, Health and Development, 42, 220–230.

Haagsman, K., Mazzucato, V., & Dito, B. B. (2015). Transnational families and the subjective well-being of migrant parents: Angolan and Nigerian parents in the Netherlands. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38, 2652–2671.

Haight, W. L., Black, J. E., Mangelsdorf, S., Giorgio, G., Tata, L., Schoppe, S. J., & Szewczyk, M. (2002). Making visits better: The perspectives of parents, foster parents, and child welfare workers. Child Welfare, 81, 173–202.

Harvard University Center on the Developing Child. (2017). Toxic stress. Retrieved from https://developingchild.harvard.edu/topics/science_of_early_childhood/toxic_stress_response/

Homeland Security Act. (2002), Pub. L. 107–296, title IV, §462(g), codified in 6 USC § 279(g).

Human Rights Watch. (2018). Q&A: Trump administration’s “zero-tolerance” immigration policy. Retrieved on December 20, 2018 from https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/08/16/qa-trump-administrations-zero-tolerance-immigration-policy

Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act. (1996). IIRIRA §§305, 309(d)(2), Pub. L. No. 104–208, 110 Stat. 3009 (Sept. 30, 1996), codified at 8 U.S.C. §1325 (penalties for entering without authorization) and §1326 (felony penalties for reentering without inspection and having a prior removal order).

Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 §1214, 25 U.S.C. §§ 1901-63 (1977-1978).

Iyendgar, U., Kim, S., Martinez, S., Fonagy, P., & Strathearn, L. (2014). Unresolved trauma in mothers: Intergenerational effects and the role of reorganization. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–9.

Jones, J., Obser, K., & Podkul, J. (2017). Betraying family values. Retrieved from https://supportkind.org/resources/betraying-family-values/

Kaptur, M. (2018). Children Headed to Michigan. Congressional Record, 164 (104) U.S. Government Publishing Office. Retrieved from https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CREC-2018-06-21/html/CREC-2018-06-21-pt1-PgH5488.htm .

Kim, S., Fonagy, P., Allen, J., & Strathearn, L. (2014). Mothers’ unresolved trauma blunts amygdala response to infant distress. Social Neuroscience, 9, 352–363.

Klest, B., Tamaian, A., & Boughner, E. (2019). A model exploring the relationship between betrayal trauma and health: The roles of mental health, attachment, trust in healthcare systems, and nonadherence to treatment. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy.

Kobak, R., Zajac, K., & Madsen, S. D. (2016). Attachment disruptions, reparative processes, and psychopathology: Theoretical and clinical implications. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 25–39). NY: Guilford Press.

Krügera, S., Priebec, S., Fritsch, R., & Mundtd, A. P. (2017). Burden of separation and suicide risk of prisoners with minor children. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 52, 55–61.

Lajimodiere, D.K. (2014). American Indian boarding schools in the United States: A brief history and their current legacy. In Institute for the Study of Human Rights, Columbia University (Ed) Indigenous peoples’ access to justice, including truth and reconciliation processes (pp. 255–261). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.7916/D8GT5M1F .

Lawson, K (2018). The lasting impact family separation can have on parents. Retrieved from: https://broadly.vice.com/en_us/article/j5nqzg/the-lasting-impact-family-separation-can-have-on-parents .

Linton, J., Kennedy, E., Shapiro, A., & Griffin, M. (2018). Unaccompanied children seeking safe haven: Providing care and supporting well-being of a vulnerable population. Children and Youth Services Review, 92, 122–132.

McWey, L. M., Acock, A., & Porter, B. (2010). The impact of continued contact with biological parents upon the mental health of children in foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 1338–1345.

Migration Policy Institute. (2018). Trump’s first year on immigration policy: Rhetoric vs. reality. Retrieved from https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/trump-first-year-immigration-policy-rhetoric-vs-reality .

Miller, A., Hess, J. M., Bybee, D., & Goodkind, J. R. (2018). Understanding the mental health consequences of family separation for refugees: Implications for policy and practice. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 88, 26–37.

Nagata, D. K., Kim, J. H. J., & Wu, K. (2019). The Japanese American wartime incarceration: Examining the scope of racial trauma. American Psychologist, 74, 36–48.

Nixon, K. L., Radtke, H. L., & Tutty, L. M. (2013). Every day it takes a piece of you away: Experiences of grief and loss among abused mothers involved with child protective services. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 7, 172–193.

O’Connor, K., Thomas-Duckwitz, C., & Nuñez -Mchiri, G.G. (2015). No safe haven here: Mental health assessment of women and children held in US immigration detention. Retrieved from http://www.uusc.org/sites/default/files/mental_health_assessment_of_women_and_children_u.s._immigration_detention.pdf .

Paksarian, D., Eaton, W. W., Mortensen, P. B., Merikangas, K. R., & Pedersen, C. B. (2015). A population-based study of the risk of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder associated with parent-child separation during development. Psychological Medicine, 45, 2825–2837.

Paris, M., Antuña, C., Baily, C. D. R., Hass, G. A., Muñiz de la Peña, C., Silva, M. A., & Srinivas, T. (2018). Vulnerable but not broken: Psychosocial challenges and resilience pathways among unaccompanied children from Central America. Retrieved from https://cllas.uoregon.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Vulnerable-But-Not-Broken-Final-Report-Aug-2018.pdf .

Rasmussen, A., Nguyen, L., Wilkinson, J., Vundla, S., Raghavan, S., Miller, K. E., & Keller, A. S. (2010). Rates and impact of trauma and current stressors among Darfuri refugees in eastern Chad. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80, 227–236.

Reyes, A. N., de Lima Bach, S., do Amaral, P. L., Jansen, K., Molina, M. R. A. L., Spessato, B. C., & Azevedo da Silva, R. (2019). Emotional and behavioral problems in children of depressed mothers: A school-based study in southern Brazil. Psychology Health and Medicine, 24, 14–20.

Rienzi, G. (2018). Separated: Toxic stress and child development under ‘zero-tolerance’ immigration policies. Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved from https://hub.jhu.edu/2018/09/18/family-separation-child-development/ .

Robjant, K., Hassan, R., & Katona, C. (2009). Mental health implications of detaining asylum seekers: Systematic review. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 194, 306–312.

Rousseau, C., Mekki-Berrada, A., & Moreau, S. (2001). Trauma and extended separation from family among Latin American and African refugees in Montreal. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 64, 40–59.

Rusch, D., & Reyes, K. (2012). Examining the effects of Mexican serial migration and family separations on acculturative stress, depression, and family functioning. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 35, 139–158.

Shear, M., Goodnough, A., & Haberman, M. (2018). Trump retreats on separating families, but thousands may remain apart. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/20/us/politics/trump-immigration-children-executive-order.html

Suárez-Orozco, C., Todorova, I. L. G., & Louie, J. (2002). Making up for lost time: The experience of separation and reunification among immigrant families. Family Process, 41, 625–643.

Suárez-Orozco, C., Bang, H. J., & Kim, H. Y. (2011). “I felt like my heart was staying behind”: Psychological implications of immigrant family separations and reunifications. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26, 222–257.

Tappan, L. (1850). The fugitive slave bill; its history and unconstitutionality: With an account of the seizure and enslavement of James Hamlet, and his subsequent restoration to liberty. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse. (2017) Criminal immigration prosecutions down 14% in FY 2017. Retrieved from https://trac.syr.edu/tracreports/crim/494/

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children & Families, Unaccompanied Alien Children Program. (2018). Fact sheet. Retrieved from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/orr/orr_fact_sheet_on_unaccompanied_alien_childrens_services.pdf

U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Customs & Border Protection. (2018). U.S. border patrol southwest border apprehensions by sector FY2018. Retrieved from https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/usbp-sw-border-apprehensions

U.S. Department of Justice. (2018). Attorney general announces zero-tolerance policy for criminal illegal entry. Press release 18-417. Retrieved from: https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/attorney-general-announces-zero-tolerance-policy-criminal-illegal-entry

U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2019). Unaccompanied children. Agency efforts to identify and reunify children separated from parents at the border. Retrieved from https://www.gao.gov/assets/700/696788.pdf

U.S. Office of Inspector General. (2019). Many children separated from parents, guardians before ‘Ms. L. v. ice’ court order and some separations continue. Retrieved from https://www.oig.hhs.gov/newsroom/news-releases/2019/uac.asp

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2014). Children on the run: Unaccompanied children leaving Central America and Mexico and the need for international protection. Retrieved from http://www.unhcrwashington.org/sites/default/files/1_UAC_Children%20on%20the%20Run_Full%20Report.pdf .

van Ee, E., Kleber, R. J., Jongmans, M. J., Mooren, T. T. M., & Out, D. (2016). Parental PTSD, adverse parenting and child attachment in a refugee sample. Attachment & Human Development, 18, 273–291.

Vera Institute of Justice. (2018). Operation streamline: No evidence that criminal prosecution deters migration. Retrieved from https://www.vera.org/publications/operation-streamline

Winnicott, D. W. (1958). Through pediatrics to psycho-analysis. London: Hogarth Press.

Zeman, L. D. (2004). Etiology of loss among parents falsely accused of abuse or neglect. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 10, 19–31.