Why we cannot explain cross-cultural differences in risk assessment

Anderson, 2002, Human aggression, Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27, 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231 Andrews, 1995 Andrews, 2010 Andrews, 2004 Andrews, 2011, Sources of variability in estimates of predictive validity: A specification with Level of Service general risk and need, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 38, 413, 10.1177/0093854811401990 Arsovska, 2007, Globalization, conduct norms and “Culture Conflict”: Perceptions of violence and crime in an ethnic Albanian context, British Journal of Criminology, 48, 226, 10.1093/bjc/azm068 Austin, 2003 Baird, 2009 Barnes, 2016, Validity of initial, exit, and dynamic juvenile risk assessment: An examination across gender and race/ethnicity, Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 55, 21, 10.1080/10509674.2015.1107004 Bechtel, 2007, Assessing the risk of re-offending for juvenile offenders using the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory, Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 45, 85, 10.1300/J076v45n03_04 Berry, 2011 Bhutta, 2016, An examination of a risk/needs assessment instrument and its relation to religiosity and recidivism among probationers in a Muslim culture, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 43, 204, 10.1177/0093854815604011 Bonta, 2002, Offender risk assessment: Guidelines for selection and use, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 29, 355, 10.1177/0093854802029004002 Bonta, 2017 Bradford Hill, 1965, The environment and disease: Association or causation?, Proceedings of the Royal Society Medicine, 58, 295, 10.1177/003591576505800503 Chenane, 2015, Racial and ethnic differences in the predictive validity of the Level of Service Inventory-Revised among prison inmates, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42, 286, 10.1177/0093854814548195 Chu, 2015, Assessing youth offenders in a non-Western context: The predictive validity of the YLS/CMI ratings, Psychological Assessment, 27, 1013, 10.1037/a0038670 Cooke, 2005, Assessing psychopathy in the UK: Concerns about cross-cultural generalisability, The British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 335, 10.1192/bjp.186.4.335 Cooper, 2013, Natural kinds, 950 Cording, 2016, Challenges for the theory and application of dynamic risk factors, Psychology, Crime & Law, 22, 84, 10.1080/1068316X.2015.1111367 Dahle, 2014, Prognostische Validität des Level of Service Inventory-Revised, Forensische Psychiatrie, Psychologie, Kriminologie, 8, 104, 10.1007/s11757-014-0256-5 Decker, 2009, Gangs, migration, and crime: The changing landscape in Europe and the USA, Journal of International Migration and Integration / Revue De L’integration Et De La Migration Internationale, 10, 393, 10.1007/s12134-009-0109-9 Douglas, 2005, Violence risk assessment: Getting specific about being dynamic, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11, 347, 10.1037/1076-8971.11.3.347 Douglas, 2016, The HCR-20 violence risk assessment scheme, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 26, 3, 10.1177/0093854899026001001 Douglas, 2017, Risk assessment tools in criminal justice and forensic psychiatry: The need for better data, European Psychiatry : the Journal of the Association of European Psychiatrists, 42, 134, 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2016.12.009 Edens, 2007, Youth psychopathy and criminal recidivism: A meta-analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist measures, Law and Human Behavior, 31, 53, 10.1007/s10979-006-9019-y Erez, 2004, A dynamic, multi-level model of culture: From the micro level of the individual to the macro level of a global culture, Applied Psychology, 53, 583, 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2004.00190.x Ewert vs. Canada, 2018 Fass, 2008, The LSI-R and the COMPAS: Validation data on two risk-needs tools, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 1095, 10.1177/0093854808320497 Fazel, 2019, The scientific validity of current approaches to violence and criminal risk assessment Flores, 2004 Fortune, 2018, The psychology of criminal conduct: A consideration of strengths, weaknesses and future directions, Psychology, Crime & Law, 5, 1 Friedman, 1990 Gendreau, 2002, Is the PCL-R really the “unparalleled” measure of offender risk?, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 29, 397, 10.1177/0093854802029004004 Gendreau, 1996, A meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: What works!, Criminology, 34, 575, 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1996.tb01220.x Gilbert, 2017, The General Aggression Model and its application to violent offender assessment and treatment, Vol. 34, 1 Gordon, 2015, Psychometric evaluation of the Level of Service/Case Management Inventory among Australian offenders completing community-based sentences, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42, 1089, 10.1177/0093854815596419 Gottfredson, 2006, Statistical risk assessment: Old problems and new applications, Crime & Delinquency, 52, 178, 10.1177/0011128705281748 Haag, 2016, An introduction to the issues of cross-cultural assessment inspired by Ewert v. Canada, Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 3, 65, 10.1037/tam0000067 Hanson, 2013, Quantifying the relative risk of sex offenders: Risk ratios for Static-99R, Sexual Abuse: a Journal of Research and Treatment, 25, 482, 10.1177/1079063212469060 Hare, 2003 Harris, 2015, Progress in violence risk assessment and communication: Hypothesis versus evidence, Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 33, 128, 10.1002/bsl.2157 Hart, 2016, Culture and violence risk assessment: The case of Ewert v. Canada, Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 3, 76, 10.1037/tam0000068 Haynes, 1992, Models of causality in psychopathology: Toward dynamic, synthetic and nonlinear models of behavior disorders, Vol. 168 He, 2012, Bias and equivalence in cross-cultural research, Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2, 10.9707/2307-0919.1111 Heath, 2008, The second generation in Western Europe: Education, unemployment, and occupational attainment, Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 211, 10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134728 Heffernan, 2017, A comprehensive theory of dynamic risk and protective factors, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 37, 129, 10.1016/j.avb.2017.10.003 Heffernan, 2018, Dynamic risk factors, protective factors and value-laden practices, Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 1 Heffernan, 2019, Dynamic risk factors: Conceptualization, measurement, and evidence, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 48, 6, 10.1016/j.avb.2019.06.004 Helmus, 2018, Sex offender risk assessment: Where are we and where are we going?, Current Psychiatry Reports, 20, 46, 10.1007/s11920-018-0909-8 Hoge, 2011 Hollin, 2003, The Level of Service Inventory-Revised profile of English prisoners: A needs analysis, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30, 422, 10.1177/0093854803253134 Holsinger, 2003, Ethnicity, gender, and the Level of Service Inventory-Revised, Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 309, 10.1016/S0047-2352(03)00025-4 Holsinger, 2006, Exploring the validity of the Level of Service Inventory-Revised with native American offenders, Journal of Criminal Justice, 34, 331, 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.03.009 Hsu, 2011, The Level of Service Inventory–Revised (LSI-R) and Australian offenders: Factor structure, sensitivity, and specificity, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 38, 600, 10.1177/0093854811402583 Jones, 2002, Culturally relevant assessment of indigenous offenders: A literature review, Australian Psychologist, 37, 187, 10.1080/00050060210001706866 Jung, 1999, Risk and need assessment of juvenile offenders, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 26, 69, 10.1177/0093854899026001004 Kenny, 2008 2007 Kitayama, 2009, A cultural task analysis of implicit independence: Comparing North America, Western Europe, and East Asia, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 236, 10.1037/a0015999 Klepfisz, 2016, Understanding dynamic risk factors for violence, Psychology, Crime & Law, 22, 124, 10.1080/1068316X.2015.1109091 Kroner, 2005, A coffee can, factor analysis, and prediction of antisocial behavior: The structure of criminal risk, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 28, 360, 10.1016/j.ijlp.2004.01.011 Leistico, 2008, A large-scale meta-analysis relating the Hare measures of psychopathy to antisocial conduct, Law and Human Behavior, 32, 28, 10.1007/s10979-007-9096-6 Liebkind, 2000, Acculturation and psychological well-being among immigrant adolescents in Finland, Journal of Adolescent Research, 15, 446, 10.1177/0743558400154002 Lowder, 2019, Racial bias and LSI-R assessments in probation sentencing and outcomes, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 46, 210, 10.1177/0093854818789977 Loya, 2010, Mental illness stigma as a mediator of differences in Caucasian and South Asian college students’ attitudes toward psychological counseling, Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 484, 10.1037/a0021113 Loza, 1994, Psychometric evaluation of the Level of Service Inventory (LSI) among male Canadian federal offenders, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 21, 468, 10.1177/0093854894021004006 Maddux, 2011 Mals, 2000, Adapting violence rehabilitation programs for the Australian aboriginal offender, Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 30, 121, 10.1300/J076v30n01_08 Mann, 2010, Assessing risk for sexual recidivism: Some proposals on the nature of psychologically meaningful risk factors, Sexual Abuse: a Journal of Research and Treatment, 22, 191, 10.1177/1079063210366039 Martel, 2011, When two worlds collide: Aboriginal risk management in Canadian corrections, British Journal of Criminology, 51, 235, 10.1093/bjc/azr003 McGrath, 2018, Differentiating predictive validity and practical utility for the Australian Adaptation of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 45, 820, 10.1177/0093854818762468 McGrath, 2012, The relative predictive validity of the static and dynamic domain scores in risk-need assessment of juvenile offenders, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39, 250, 10.1177/0093854811431917 Olver, 2012, Short and long-term prediction of recidivism using the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory in a sample of serious young offenders, Law and Human Behavior, 36, 331, 10.1037/h0093927 Olver, 2009, Risk assessment with young offenders, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 329, 10.1177/0093854809331457 Olver, 2014, Thirty years of research on the level of service scales: A meta-analytic examination of predictive accuracy and sources of variability, Psychological Assessment, 26, 156, 10.1037/a0035080 Onifade, 2009, Risk assessment: The predictive validity of the youth Level of Service Case Management Inventory with African Americans and girls, Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 7, 205, 10.1080/15377930903143544 Palmer, 2007, The Level of Service Inventory–Revised with English women prisoners: A needs and reconviction analysis, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 971, 10.1177/0093854807300819 Parker, 2001, Do the Chinese somatize depression? A cross-cultural study, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 36, 287, 10.1007/s001270170046 Pusch, 2018, Gender and risk assessment in juvenile offenders: A meta-analysis, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 45, 56, 10.1177/0093854817721720 Quinsey, 2006 Rabold, 2011, Why are some ethnic groups more violent than others? The role of friendship network’s ethnic composition, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 3127, 10.1177/0886260510390944 Reisig, 2006, Assessing recidivism risk across female pathways to crime, Justice Quarterly, 23, 384, 10.1080/07418820600869152 Rocque, 2014, In the eye of the beholder? An examination of the inter-rater reliability of the LSI-R and YLS/CMI in a correctional agency, Journal of Criminal Justice, 42, 568, 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2014.09.011 Schlager, 2007, Validity of the Level of Service Inventory-Revised (LSI-R) among African American and Hispanic male offenders, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 545, 10.1177/0093854806296039 Schmidt, 2005, Reliability and validity analyses of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 32, 329, 10.1177/0093854804274373 Schmidt, 2018 Schmidt, 2019, Risk and protective factors of delinquency that are sensitive to migration and culture, Psychology, Crime & Law, 18, 1 Schmidt, 2018, How culture and migration affect risk assessment, The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 10, 65 Schwalbe, 2007, Risk assessment for juvenile justice: A meta-analysis, Law and Human Behavior, 31, 449, 10.1007/s10979-006-9071-7 Serin, 2013, Does intra-individual change predict offender recidivism? Searching for the holy grail in assessing offender change, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18, 32, 10.1016/j.avb.2012.09.002 Shariat, 2010, Psychopathy in Iran: A cross-cultural study, Journal of Personality Disorders, 24, 676, 10.1521/pedi.2010.24.5.676 Shepherd, 2018, Popping the cultural bubble of violence risk assessment tools, The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 29, 211, 10.1080/14789949.2017.1354055 Shepherd, 2016, Forensic risk assessment and cultural diversity: Contemporary challenges and future directions, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 22, 427, 10.1037/law0000102 Shepherd, 2015, Does the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory generalize across ethnicity?, International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 14, 193, 10.1080/14999013.2015.1086450 Singh, 2011, A comparative study of violence risk assessment tools: A systematic review and metaregression analysis of 68 studies involving 25,980 participants, Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 499, 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.009 Skeem, 2004, Are there ethnic differences in levels of psychopathy? A meta-analysis, Law and Human Behavior, 28, 505, 10.1023/B:LAHU.0000046431.93095.d8 Strauss-Hughes, 2019, A cultural–ecological perspective on agency and offending behaviour, Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 39, 1, 10.1080/13218719.2019.1644250 Sue, 2013 Takahashi, 2013, A cross-validation of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI) among Japanese juvenile offenders, Law and Human Behavior, 37, 389, 10.1037/lhb0000029 Taxman, 2017, The value and importance of risk and need assessment (RNR) in corrections and sentencing: An overview of the handbook, 1 Toprak, 2013, Jugendgewalt und migration – Möglichkeiten der Gewaltprävention [Youth violence and migration -chances for violence prevention], 287 Van de Vijver, 2004, Assessment in multicultural groups: The south African case, SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 30, 10.4102/sajip.v30i4.169 Van de Vijver, 2011, Equivalence and bias: A review of concepts, models, and data analytic procedures, 17 Van de Vijver, 2004, Bias and equivalence in cross-cultural assessment: An overview, Revue Européenne De Psychologie Appliquée/European Review of Applied Psychology, 54, 119, 10.1016/j.erap.2003.12.004 van Voorhis, 2012, On behalf of women offenders, Criminology & Public Policy, 11, 111, 10.1111/j.1745-9133.2012.00793.x Veen, 2011, Cross-ethnic generalizability of the three-factor model of psychopathy: The youth psychopathic traits inventory in an incarcerated sample of native Dutch and Moroccan immigrant boys, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 34, 127, 10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.02.007 Via, 2017, Exploring how to measure criminogenic needs: Five instruments and no real answers, 312 Villanueva, 2019, Predictive validity of the YLS/CMI in a sample of Spanish young offenders of Arab descent, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 10.1177/0306624X19834403 Ward, 2016, Dynamic risk factors: Scientific kinds or predictive constructs, Psychology, Crime & Law, 22, 2, 10.1080/1068316X.2015.1109094 Ward, 2016, From dynamic risk factors to causal processes: A methodological framework, Psychology, Crime & Law, 22, 190, 10.1080/1068316X.2015.1117080 Ward, 2016, The role of dynamic risk factors in the explanation of offending, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 29, 79, 10.1016/j.avb.2016.06.007 Ward, 2017, The role of values in forensic and correctional rehabilitation, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 37, 42, 10.1016/j.avb.2017.09.002 Wilson, 2014, Does one size fit all?: A meta-analysis examining the predictive ability of the Level of Service Inventory (LSI) with aboriginal offenders, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 41, 196, 10.1177/0093854813500958 Wormith, 2015, The predictive validity of the LS/CMI with aboriginal offenders in Canada, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42, 481, 10.1177/0093854814552843 Zhang, 2015, Reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the LSI-R with probationers, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 59, 1474, 10.1177/0306624X14538396