Who will change the “baby?” Examining the power of gender in an experimental setting
Tóm tắt
We conduct an experiment designed to test the impact of a gender-loaded frame on the distribution of labor between care and market work. In an unframed treatment, one activity is labeled a “Multiplication Activity” and a second activity is labeled a “Monitoring Activity”. In a framed treatment, these same activities are labeled as an “Employment Activity” and a “Care Activity”. A difference between these treatments should come from the labeling of the activities, and not the nature of the activities. We find that men are more likely than women to fail at the monitoring/care activity in the framed treatment when both activities are done simultaneously by one individual for the first time. During paired rounds, we find that, in the framed treatment, women in mixed-gender pairs are more likely to specialize in monitoring/care and men are more likely to specialize in multiplication/employment. We do not find this in the unframed treatment. Our design controls for factors typically used to explain the gendered distribution of work, such as differences in earnings, income, or human capital.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Agarwal, B. (1997). Bargaining and gender relations: within and beyond the household. Feminist Economics, 3(1), 1–51.
Akerlof, G. A., & Kranton, R. W. (2000). Economics and identity. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115(3), 715–753.
Andersen, S., Ertac, S., Gneezy, U., List, J. A., & Maximiano, S. (2018). On the cultural basis of gender differences in negotiation. Experimental Economics, 21(4), 757–778.
Ashraf, N. (2009). Spousal control and intra-household decision making: an experimental study in the Philippines. American Economic Review, 99(4), 1245–77.
Babcock, L., Recalde, M. P., Vesterlund, L., & Weingart, L. (2017). Gender differences in accepting and receiving requests for tasks with low promotability. American Economic Review, 107(3), 714–47.
Badgett, M., & Folbre, N. (1999). Assigning care: gender norms and economic outcomes. International Labour Review, 138(3), 311–326.
Beblo, M., Beninger, D., Cochard, F., Couprie, H., & Hopfensitz, A. (2015). Efficiency-equality trade-off within French and German couples: A comparative experimental study. Annals of Economics and Statistics/Annales d'Économie et de Statistique, 117/118, 233–252.
Becker, G. S. (1981). A treatise on the family. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Bertrand, M., Kamenica, E., & Pan, J. (2015). Gender identity and relative income within households. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 130(2), 571–614.
Bianchi, S. M., Sayer, L. C., Milkie, M. A., & Robinson, J. P. (2012). Housework: who did, does or will do it, and how much does it matter? Social Forces, 91(1), 55–63.
Bittman, M., England, P., Sayer, L., Folbre, N., & Matheson, G. (2003). When does gender trump money? Bargaining and time in household work1. American Journal of sociology, 109(1), 186–214.
Borelli, J. L., Nelson, S. K., River, L. M., Birken, S. A., & Moss-Racusin, C. (2017). Gender differences in work-family guilt in parents of young children. Sex Roles, 76(5-6), 356–368.
Budig, M. J., & England, P. (2001). The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review, 66(2), 204–225.
Buser, T., & Peter, N. (2012). Multitasking. Experimental Economics, 15(4), 641–655.
Carlsson, F., Martinsson, P., Qin, P., & Sutter, M. (2013). The inuence of spouses on household decision making under risk: an experiment in rural china. Experimental Economics, 16(3), 383–401.
Carrell, S. E., Page, M. E., & West, J. E. (2010). Sex and science: how professor gender perpetuates the gender gap. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125(3), 1101–1144.
Carter, M., & Katz, E. (1997). Separate spheres and the conjugal contract: understanding the impact of gender-biased development. In Intrahousehold resource allocation in developing countries: methods, models and policies (pp. 95–111). Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Charness, G., & Gneezy, U. (2012). Strong evidence for gender differences in risk taking. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 83(1), 50–58.
Chesley, N. (2011). Stay-at-home fathers and breadwinning mothers: gender, couple dynamics, and social change. Gender & Society, 25(5), 642–664.
Christensen, P. N., Rothgerber, H., Wood, W., & Matz, D. C. (2004). Social norms and identity relevance: a motivational approach to normative behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(10), 1295–1309.
Cochard, F., Couprie, H., & Hopfensitz, A. (2016). Do spouses cooperate? An experimental investigation. Review of Economics of the Household, 14(1), 1–26.
Cochard, F., Couprie, H., & Hopfensitz, A. (2018). What if women earned more than their spouses? An experimental investigation of work-division in couples. Experimental Economics, 21(1), 50–71. Mar.
Croson, R., & Gneezy, U. (2009). Gender differences in preferences. Journal of Economic Literature, 47(2), 448–74.
Dalton, S. E., & Bielby, D. D. (2000). “That’s our kind of constellation” lesbian mothers negotiate institutionalized understandings of gender within the family. Gender & Society, 14(1), 36–61.
Deutsch, F. M. (2007). Undoing gender. Gender & Society, 21(1), 106–127.
Doucet, A. (2004). “it’s almost like i have a job, but i don’t get paid”: fathers at home recon_guring work, care, and masculinity. Fathering, 2(3), 277.
Eckel, C. C., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). Differences in the economic decisions of men and women: experimental evidence. Handbook of Experimental Economics Results, 1, 509–519.
England, P., & Folbre, N. (1999). The cost of caring. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 561(1), 39–51.
Fischbacher, U. (2007). z-Tree: Zurich toolbox for ready-made economic experiments. Experimental Economics, 10, 171–178.
Folbre, N. (2014). Who cares? A feminist critique of the care economy. New York: Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung. http://www.rosalux-nyc.org/afeminist-critique-of-the-care-economy/.
Good, J. J., & Sanchez, D. T. (2010). Doing gender for different reasons: why gender conformity positively and negatively predicts self-esteem. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(2), 203–214.
Görges, L. (2015). The power of love: a subtle driving force for unegalitarian labor division? Review of Economics of the Household, 13(1), 163–192.
Gough, M., & Noonan, M. (2013). A review of the motherhood wage penalty in the United States. Sociology Compass, 7(4), 328–342.
Gupta, S. (2007). Autonomy, dependence, or display? The relationship between married women's earnings and housework. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(2), 399–417.
Gupta, S., & Ash, M. (2008). Whose money, whose time? A nonparametric approach to modeling time spent on housework in the United States. Feminist Economics, 14(1), 93–120.
Güth, W., Ivanova-Stenzel, R., Sutter, M., & Weck-Hannemann, H. (2003). Investment and bargaining in joint ventures: a family decision-making experiment. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 159(2), 323–341.
Güth, W., Ivanova-Stenzel, R., & Tjotta, S. (2004). Please, marry me! an experimental study of risking a joint venture. Metroeconomica, 55(1), 1–21.
Hersch, J. (2009). Home production and wages: evidence from the american time use survey. Review of Economics of the Household, 7, 159–178.
Holm, H. J. (2000). Gender-based focal points. Games and Economic Behavior, 32(2), 292–314.
Huang, J. Z. J. & Low, C. (2017). The Public Face of Masculinity: Chivalry and Bravado in a Negotiation Experiment. In Academy of Management Proceedings, 1 (11548).
Iversen, V., Jackson, C., Kebede, B., Munro, A., & Verschoor, A. (2006). What’s love got to do with it? An experimental test of household models in east uganda. CSAE Working Paper Series.
Killewald, A. (2013). A reconsideration of the fatherhood premium: marriage, coresidence, biology, and fathers’ wages. American Sociological Review, 78(1), 96–116.
Killewald, A., & Gough, M. (2010). Money isn’t everything: wives’ earnings and housework time. Social Science Research, 39(6), 987–1003.
Kimmel, J., & Connelly, R. (2007). Mothers’ time choices caregiving, leisure, home production, and paid work. Journal of Human Resources, 42(3), 643–681.
Lundberg, S., & Pollak, R. A. (1993). Separate spheres bargaining and the marriage market. Journal of Political Economy, 100(6), 988–1010.
Manser, M., & Brown, M. (1980). Marriage and household decision-making: a bargaining analysis. International Economic Review, 21(1), 31–44.
McElroy, M. B., & Horney, M. J. (1981). Nash-bargained household decisions: toward a generalization of the theory of demand. International Economic Review, 22(2), 333–349.
Nelson, J. A. (2015). Are women really more risk-averse than men? A re-analysis of the literature using expanded methods. Journal of Economic Surveys, 29(3), 566–585.
Oerton, S. (1998). Reclaiming the ‘housewife’? Lesbians and household work. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 2(4), 69–83.
Oosterbeek, H., Sonnemans, J., & Van Velzen, S. (2003). The need for marriage contracts: an experimental study. Journal of Population Economics, 16(3), 431–453.
Padavic, I., & Butterfield, J. (2011). Mothers, fathers, and “mathers” negotiating a lesbian co-parental identity. Gender & Society, 25(2), 176–196.
Raley, S., Bianchi, S. M., & Wang, W. (2012). When do fathers care? Mothers’ economic contribution and fathers' involvement in child care. American Journal of Sociology, 117(5), 1422–1459.
Robinson, J. (2012). Limited insurance within the household: evidence from a field experiment in kenya. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 4(4), 140–64.
Schneider, D. (2011). Market earnings and household work: new tests of gender performance theory. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73(4), 845–860.
Smith, T. W., Davern, M., Freese, J., & Hout, M. (2018). General Social Surveys, 1972–2016. [machine-readable data file] /Principal Investigator. In T. W. Smith, P. V. Marsden & M. Hout (eds), Chicago: NORC, 2018: NORC at the University of Chicago [producer and distributor]. Data accessed from the GSS Data Explorer website at gssdataexplorer.norc.org. Accessed 12 Mar 2018.
Weeden, K. A., Cha, Y., & Bucca, M. (2016). Long work hours, part-time work, and trends in the gender gap in pay, the motherhood wage penalty, and the fatherhood wage premium. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 2(4), 71–102.
West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151.
West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (2009). Accounting for doing gender. Gender & Society, 23(1), 112–122.
Wood, W., Christensen, P. N., Hebl, M. R., & Rothgerber, H. (1997). Conformity to sex-typed norms, affect, and the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(3), 523.
Yavorsky, J. E., Kamp Dush, C. M., & Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J. (2015). The production of inequality: the gender division of labor across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 77(3), 662–679.