What the egg can tell about its hen: Embryonic development on the basis of dynamic energy budgets
Tóm tắt
The energy cost of offspring is important in the conversion of resources allocated to reproduction to numbers of offspring, and in obtaining energy budget parameters from quantities that are easy to measure. An efficient numerical procedure is presented to obtain this cost for eggs and foetusses in the context of the dynamic energy budget theory, which specifies that birth occurs when maturity exceeds a threshold value and maternal effects determine the reserve density at birth. This paper extends previous work to arbitrary values of the ratio of the maturity and somatic maintenance costs. I discuss the body size scaling implications for the relative size and age at birth and conclude that the size at birth, contrary to the age at birth, covaries with the maintenance ratio. Apart from evolutionary adaptation of the maturity at birth, this covariation might explain some of the observed scatter in the relative length at birth. The theory can be used to evaluate the effects of the separation of cells in e.g. the two-cell stage of embryonic development, and of the removal of initial egg mass. If cell separation hardly affects energy parameters, body size scaling relationships imply that cell separation can only occur successfully in species with sufficiently large maximum body length (as adult); i.e. some two times that of Daphnia magna. Toxic compounds that increase the cost of synthesis of structure, decrease the allocation to reproduction indirectly via the life cycle, because food uptake is linked to size. They can also decrease the egg size, however, such that the reproduction rate is stimulated at low concentrations. The present theory offers a possible explanation for this well-known phenomenon.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Alda Alvarez O., Jager T., Marco Redondo E., Kammenga J.E.: Assessing physiological modes of action of toxic stressors with the nematode Acrobeloides nanus. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 25, 3230–3237 (2006)
Benton T.G., Plaistow S.J., Beckerman A.P., Lapsley C.T., Littlejohns S.: Changes in maternal investment in eggs can affect population dynamics. Proc. R. Soc. 272, 1351–1356 (2005)
Bertram D.F., Strathmann R.R.: Effects of maternal and larval nutrition on growth and form of planktotrophic larvae. Ecology 79, 315–327 (1998)
Deeming D.C., Birchard G.F.: Allometry of egg and hatcling mass in birds and reptiles: roles of developmental maturity, eggshell structure and phylogeny. J. Zool. 271, 78–87 (2007)
Dzialowski E.M., Sotherland P.R.: Maternal effects of egg size on emu Dromaius novaehollandiae egg composition and hatchling phenotype. J. Exp. Biol. 207, 597–606 (2004)
Einum S., Fleming I.A.: Maternal effects of egg size in brown trout (Salmo trutta): norms of reaction to environmental quality. Proc. Biol. Sci. 266(1433), 2095–2095 (1999)
Finkler M.S., Orman J.B.v., Sotherland P.R.: Experimental manipulation of egg quality in chickens: influence of albumen and yolk on the size and body composition of near-term embryos in a precocial bird. J. Comp. Physiol. B 168, 17–24 (1998)
Flye Sainte Marie, J.: Ecophysiology of brown ring disease in the manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum, experimental and modelling approaches. Ph.D. thesis, Brest University and Vrije Universiteit, Brest and Amsterdam (2008)
Glazier D.S.: Effects of food, genotype, and maternal size and age on offspring investment in Daphnia Magna. Ecology 73(3), 910–926 (1992)
Gliwicz Z.M., Guisande C.: Family planning in Daphnia: resistance to stravation in offspring born to mothers grown at different food levels. Oecologia 91, 463–467 (1992)
Hart M.W.: What are the costs of small egg size for a marine invertebrate with feeding planktonic larvae?. Am. Nat. 146, 415–426 (1995)
Heath D.D., Fox C.W., Heath J.W.: Maternal effects on offspring size: variation through early development of chinook salmon. Evolution 53(5), 1605–1611 (1999)
Huggett A.S.G., Widdas W.F.: The relationship between mammalian foetal weight and conception age. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 114, 306–317 (1951)
Jager T., Heugens E.H.W., Kooijman S.A.L.M.: Making sense of ecotoxicological test results: towards process-based models. Ecotoxicology 15, 305–314 (2006)
Jardine D., Litvak M.K.: Direct yolk sac volume manipulation of zebrafish embryos and the relationship between offspring size and yolk sac volume. J. Fish Biol. 63, 388–397 (2003)
Ji X., Du W.G., Xu W.Q.: Experimental manipulation of eggs size and hatling size in the cobra, Naja naja atra (Elapidae). Neth. J. Zool. 49, 167–175 (1999)
Kooijman S.A.L.M.: Energy budgets can explain body size relations. J. Theor. Biol. 121, 269–282 (1986)
Kooijman S.A.L.M.: What the hen can tell about her egg; egg development on the basis of budgets. J. Math. Biol. 23, 163–185 (1986)
Kooijman S.A.L.M.: Dynamic Energy and Mass Budgets in Biological Systems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2000)
Kooijman, S.A.L.M., Baas, J., Bontje, D., Broerse, M., Jager, T., Gestel, C.v., Hattum, B.v.: Scaling relationships based on partition coefficients and body sizes have similarities and interactions. SAR and QSAR in Environ. Res. (2007)
Kooijman S.A.L.M., Bedaux J.J.M.: Analysis of toxicity tests on Daphnia survival and reproduction. Water Res. 30, 1711–1723 (1996)
Kooijman, S.A.L.M., Bedaux, J.J.M., Péry, A.R.R., Jager, T.: Biology-based methods. In: Magaud, H. (ed.) Current Approaches in the Statistical Analysis of Ecotoxicity Data: A Guidance to Application. Series on Testing Assessment, vol. 54, TC 147/ SC 5/ WG 10/ N0390, Chap. 7. ISO and OECD, Paris (2006)
Kooijman, S.A.L.M., Sousa, T., Pecquerie, l., Meer, J.v.d., Jager, T.: From food-dependent statistics to metabolic parameters, a practical guide to the use of dynamic energy budget theory. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B (submitted) (2008)
Kooijman S.A.L.M., Troost T.A.: Quantitative steps in the evolution of metabolic organisation as specified by the dynamic energy budget theory. Biol. Rev. 82, 1–30 (2007)
Loman J.: Microevolution and maternal effects on tadpole Rana temporaria growth and development rate. J. Zool. 257(01), 93–99 (2002)
McIntyre G., Gooding R.: Egg size, contents, and quality: maternal-age and-size effects on house fly eggs. Can. J. Zool./Rev. Can. Zool 78(9), 1544–1551 (2000)
Morley S.A., Batty R.S., Geffen A.J., anf Tytler P.: Egg size manipulation: a technique for investigating maternal effects on the hatching characteristics of herring. J. Fish Biol. 55(suppl A), 233–238 (1999)
Nager R.G., Monaghan P., Houston D.C.: Within-clutch trade-offs between the number and quality of eggs: experimental manipulations in gulls. Ecology 81, 1339–1350 (2000)
Nager R.G., Monaghan P., Houston D.C., Arnold K.E., Blount J.D., Berboven N.: Maternal effects through the avian egg. Acta Zool. Sin. 52(suppl), 658–661 (2006)
Reznick D., Callahan H., Llauredo R.: Maternal effects on offspring quality in poeciliid fishes. Integr. Comp. Biol. 36(2), 147 (1996)
Rossiter M.C.: Environmentally-based maternal effects: a hidden force in insect population dynamics?. Oecologia 87(2), 288–294 (1991)
Rossiter M.C.: Maternal effects generate variation in life history: consequences of egg weight plasticity in the gypsy moth. Funct. Ecol. 5(3), 386–393 (1991)
Sinervo B.: The evolution of maternal investments in lizards: an experimental and comparative analysis of egg size and its effects on offspring performance. Evolution 44, 279–294 (1990)
Sousa, T., Domingos, T., Kooijman, S.A.L.M.: From empirical patterns to theory: a formal metabolic theory of life. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B (2007) (to appear)
Warham J.: The crested penguins. In: Stonehouse, B.(eds) The Biology of Penguins, pp. 189–269. MacMillan, London (1975)
Yoshinaga T., Hagiwara A., Tsukamoto K.: Effect of periodical starvation on the survival of offspring in the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis. Fish. Sci. 67, 373–374 (2001)
Zonneveld, C.: Animal energy budgets: a dynamic approach. Ph.D. thesis, Vrije Universiteit (1992)
Zonneveld C., Kooijman S.A.L.M.: Comparative kinetics of embryo development. Bull. Math. Biol. 3, 609–635 (1993)