Vegetation and Associated Environmental Conditions of the High-altitude Letšeng-la-Letsie Palustrine Wetland, a Ramsar Site in Lesotho
Tóm tắt
Lesotho has only one wetland designated as a Ramsar site, found at Letšeng-la-Letsie, which is located within the Maloti-Drakensberg region. Despite its designation as a wetland of international importance, little is known about its ecology and biodiversity. Information on wetland biodiversity is crucial for monitoring and conservation planning. This study investigated the vegetation-environment relationships in the Letšeng-la-Letsie Wetland, Lesotho. Vegetation and environmental data were collected using the Braun-Blanquet approach and standard methods, respectively. The data were analysed using cluster analysis and ordination techniques. The study recorded a total of 68 plant species from 50 genera and 23 families in the wetland, with Cotula paludosa, Eragrostis caesia, Haplocarpha nervosa and Trifolium burchellianum as some of the most dominant species. Three distinct plant communities were described: Potamogeton pusillus–Ficinia cinnamomea, Helichrysum glaciale–Eragrostis caesia and Cotula paludosa–Trifolium burchellianum. The communities and species richness recorded revealed high diversity in this wetland when compared to similar wetlands within the Maloti-Drakensberg region. Ordination revealed that species diversity and the plant communities are mainly influenced by altitude, inundation depth, mottling depth, longitude and various edaphic attributes (potassium, total organic carbon, sodium and cation exchange capacity). This study provides the baseline information, which is essential for planning, monitoring and managing this wetland of international importance. In addition, the presence of introduced invasive species suggests the need to practically protect this wetland by implementing the developed management strategies. This will ensure the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable ecosystem service delivery and compliance with the Ramsar Convention requirements.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Amendola D, Mutema V, Rosolen VC (2018) Soil hydromorphy and soil carbon: A global data analysis. Geoderma 324:9–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.03.005
Backéus I, Grab S (1995) Mires in Lesotho. Gunneria 70:243–250
Brand RF, du Preez PJ, Brown LR (2013) High altitude montane wetland vegetation classification of the Eastern Free State, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 88:223–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2013.07.011
Brand RF, Collins N, du Preez PJ (2015) A phytosociology survey and vegetation description of inselbergs in the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park World Heritage Site, South Africa. Koedoe 57(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.4102/koedoe.v57i1.1233
Bray RH, Kurtz LT (1945) Determination of total organic and available forms of phosphorus in soils. Soil Science 59:39–45
Bremner JM, Jenkinson DS (1960) Determination of organic carbon in soil. I. Oxidation by dichromate of organic matter in soil and plant materials. Journalof Soil Science 11:394–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1960.tb01093.x
Brown LR, du Preez PJ, Bezuidenhout H, Bredenkamp GJ, Mostert THC, Collins NB (2013) Guidelines for phytosociological classifications and descriptions of vegetation in southern Africa. Koedoe 55(1):1103. https://doi.org/10.4102/koedoe.v55i1.1103
Carbutt C, Edwards TJ (2006) The endemic and near-endemic angiosperms of the Drakensberg Alpine Centre. South African Journal of Botany 72:105–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2005.06.001
Chatanga P (2019) The Ecology, Plant Functional Composition and Ecosystem Services across a Range of Afromontane and Afroalpine Palustrine Wetlands in Lesotho. Ph.D. Research, University of KwaZulu-Natal
Chatanga P, Sieben EJJ (2019) Ecology of palustrine wetlands in Lesotho: Vegetation classification, description and environmental factors. Koedoe 61(1):a1574. https://doi.org/10.4102/koedoe.v61i1.1574
Chatanga P, Kotze DC, Janks M, Sieben EJJ (2019) Classification, description and environmental factors of montane wetland vegetation of the Maloti-Drakensberg region and the surrounding areas. South African Journal of Botany 125:221–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.04.028
Chatanga P, Kotze DC, Okello TW, Sieben EJJ (2020) Ecosystem services of high-altitude Afromontane palustrine wetlands in Lesotho. Ecosystem Services 45:101185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2020.101185
Cherry JA (2011) Ecology of wetland ecosystems: water, substrate, and life. Nature Education Knowledge 3:16–25
Chornesky EA, Randall MJ (2003) The threat of invasive alien species to biological diversity: setting a future course. Annalsof the Missouri Botanical Garden 90:67–76. https://doi.org/10.2307/3298527
Cooper A, Shine T, McCann T, Tidane DA (2006) An ecological basis for sustainable land use of Eastern Mauritanian wetlands. Journalof Arid Environments 67:116–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.02.003
Cowardin LM, Carter V, Golet FC, LaRoe ET (1979) Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. US Department of the Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington DC
Davidson NC (2014) How much wetland has the world lost? Long-term and recent trends in global wetland area. Marine & Freshwater Research 65:934–941. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF14173
du Preez PJ, Brown LR (2011) Impact of domestic animals on ecosystem integrity of Lesotho high altitude peatlands. In: Grillo, O. & Venora, G. (eds.) Ecosystems Biodiversity. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech. pp. 249–271
DWAF (2005) A practical field procedure for identification and delineation of wetlands and riparian areas. Document published by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (2005):49
DWAF (2008) Updated manual for the identification and delineation of wetlands and riparian areas, prepared by Rountree M, Batchelor AL, MacKenzie J, Hoare D. Report no. XXXXXXXXX. Stream Flow Reduction Activities, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria
Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) (2017) Lesotho Land cover Atlas. Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United States, Rome
Gee GW, Bauder JW (1979) Particle size analysis by hydrometer: a simplified method for routine textural analysis and a sensitivity test of measurement parameters. SoilScience Society of America Journal 43:1004–1007. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1979.03615995004300050038x
Grab SW (2010) Alpine turf exfoliation pans in Lesotho, southern Africa: Climate process morphological linkages. Geomorphology 114:261–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.07.007
Grab SW, Deschamps CL (2004) Geomorphological and geoecological controls and processes following gully development in alpine mires, Lesotho. Arct Antarct Alp Res 36:49–58. https://doi.org/10.1657/1523-0430(2004)036[0049:GAGCAP]2.0.CO;2
Grundling P, Linström A, Fokkema W, Grootjans AP (2015) Mires in the maluti mountains of Lesotho. Miresand Peat 15:1–11
Houlahan JE, Findlay CS (2004) Effect of invasive plant species on temperate wetland plant diversity. ConservationBiology 18(4):1132–1138. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00391.x
Kahlolo N, Mapeshoane B, Chatanga P, Seleteng-Kose L, Marake MV (2021) Assessing wetland functionality using soil surface indicators in Letšeng- la-Letsie wetland in Quthing District, Lesotho. African Journal of Range Forage Science 38(1):110–121. https://doi.org/10.2989/10220119.2020.1854345
Kotze DC, O’Connor TG (2000) Vegetation variation within and among palustrine wetlands along an altitudinal gradient in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Plant Ecology 146(1):77–96. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1009812300843
Lepš J, Šmilauer P (2003) Multivariate analysis of ecological data using CANOCO. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Lesotho Meteorological Services (2017) Lesotho nationally determined contribution under the united framework convention on climate change. Ministry of Energy and Meteorology, Maseru, Lesotho
Linder HP, Lehmann CER, Archibald S, Osborne CP, Richardson DM (2018) Global grass (Poaceae) success underpinned by traits facilitating colonization, persistence and habitat transformation. Biological.Reviews 93(2):1125–1144. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12388
Lou Y, Pan Y, Gao C, Jiang M, Lu X, Xu JY (2016) Response of plant height, species richness and aboveground biomass to flooding gradient along vegetation zones in Floodplain Wetlands, Northeast China. PLoS One 11:e0153972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153972
Magee TK, Blocksom KA, Herlihy AT, Nahlik AM (2019) Characterizing non-native plants in wetlands across the conterminous United States. EnvironmentalMonitoring and Assessment 191:344–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7317-3
Maire V, Gross N, Börger L, Proulx R, Wirth C, Pontes LS, Soussana JF, Louault F (2012) Habitat filtering and niche differentiation jointly explain species relative abundance within grassland communities along fertility and disturbance gradients. NewPhytologist 196:497–509. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04287.x
Mapeshoane BE (2013) Soil hydrology and hydric indicators of the Bokong wetlands in Lesotho. PhD Thesis University of Free State
Mapeshoane BE, van Huyssteen CW (2016) Wetland hydrology indicators of Maluti Mountain wetlands in Lesotho. South African Journal of Plant Soil 33:167–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/02571862.2016.1141247
Mc Lean EO (1982) Soil pH and Lime Requirement. In: Page AL (ed) Methods of soil analysis. part 2. Chemical and microbiological properties. American Society of Agronomy, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, pp 199–224
McCorry M, Renou F (2003) Ecology and management of Juncus effusus (soft rush) on cutaway peatlands. Forest Ecosystem Research Group Report, (69). Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253779950_Ecology_and_management_of_Juncus_effusus_soft_rush_on_cutaway_peatlands. Accessed 28 May 2021
McCune B, Mefford MJ (2011) PC-ORD. Multivariate analysis of ecological data. Version 6.0. Gleneden Beach. MjM Software Design, Oregon
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being: Biodiversity synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC
Mitchell SA (2013) The status of wetlands, threats and the predicted effect of global climate change: the situation in Sub-Saharan Africa. AquaticSciences 75:95–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00027-012-0259-2
Mitsch WJ, Gosselink JG (2015) Wetlands, 5th edn. Wiley, Hoboken
Mitsch WJ, Zhang L, Anderson CJ, Altor AE, Hern ME (2005) Creating riverine wetlands: ecological succession, nutrient retention, and pulsing effects. EcologicalEngineering 25:510–527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2005.04.014
Mokuku C, Lepono T, Motlatsi M, Khasipe T, Mokuku T (2004) Second state of the environment report 2002. Maseru, Lesotho
Motšetše M, Mapeshoane BE, Masopha M, Khoeli MB, Nkheloane T, Mokhatla M, Rasekoele MG (2017) Characterising wetland hydrology and water quality in streams and wetlands of Khalong-la-Lithunya, Lesotho. African Journal of Rural Development 2:117–125
Mucina L, Rutherford MC (2006) The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria
National Wetland Programme (2016) Lesotho National Wetlands Management Programme 2016/17–2020/21. Kingdom of Lesotho, 1–42
Navarre-Sitchler A, Steefel CI, Sak PB, Brantley SL (2011) A reactive-transport model for weathering rind formation on basalt. Geochimicaet Cosmochimica Acta 75:644–7667
Nelson DW, Sommers LE, Madison W (1996) Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. In: Sparks DL, et al (eds) Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3, SSSA Book Series, Madison, pp 96mohale1-1010
Olaleye AO, Nkheloane T, Mating R, Mahlako K, Rathebe K, Letsika F, Rasekoele MG (2014) Wetlands in Khalong-la-Lithunya catchment in Lesotho: soil organic carbon contents, vegetation isotopic signatures and hydrochemistry. Catena 115:71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2013.11.018
Olubode OS, Awodoyin RO, Ogunyemi S (2011) Floral diversity in the wetlands of Apete River, Eleyele Lake and Oba Dam in Ibadan, Nigeria: its implication for biodiversity erosion. West African Journal of Applied Ecology 18:109–119. https://doi.org/10.4314/wajae.v18i1.70319
Omar MY, Maroyi A, van Tol JJ (2016) Floral diversity, composition and distribution in a montane wetland in Hogsback, the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. PakistanJournal of Botany 48:1861–1870
Peck JE (2010) Step-by-step using PC-Ord. Multivariate analysis for community ecologists. MjM Software Design, Gleneden Beach
Pooley E (1998) A Field guide to wild flowers of Kwazulu-Natal and eastern region. Flora Publication Trust, Durban
Pooley E (2003) Mountain flowers: a field guide to the flora of the Drakensberg and Lesotho, 1st edn. Flora Publications Trust, Durban
Powell MK, Wynn JG, Rains MC, Stewart MT, Emery S (2019) Soil indicators of hydrologic health and resilience in cypress domes of West-Central Florida. EcologicalIndicators 97:269–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.10.008
Ramsar Convention (1971) Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as waterfowl habitat. As amended by the Paris protocol of 3.12.1982 and Regina amendments of 28.5.1987
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (2018) Global wetland outlook: State of the World’s Wetlands and their Services to People, Gland
Rhoades JD (1982) Cation exchange capacity. In: Page AL, Miller RH, Keeney DR (eds) Methods of soil analysis. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. American Society of Agronomy, Inc. Soil Science Society of America. Inc. Madison, Wisconsin, pp 149–157
Rooyani F, Schmitz G (1987) Lesotho geology, geomorphology, soils. Morija Printing Works, Lesotho
Rose NL, Milner AM, Fitchett JM, Langerman KE, Handong YH, Turner SD, Jourdan A, Shilland J, César C, Martins F, de Souza AC, Christopher J, Curtis CJ (2020) Natural archives of long-range transported contamination at the remote lake Letšeng-la Letsie, Maloti Mountains, Lesotho. Science of The Total Environment e139642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139642
SANBI (2020) Red list of South African plants: threatened species programme. South African Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), Pretoria. Available online: https://redlist.sanbi.org. Accessed on 25/ 06/ 2020
Sieben EJJ, Mtshali H, Janks M (2014) National wetland database: Classification and Analysis of the Wetland Vegetation Types for Conservation Planning and Monitoring. Report no. WRC 1980/1/14. Water Research Commission (WRC), Pretoria, p 255
Sieben EJJ, Collins NB, Corry FTJ, Kotze DC, Job N, Muasya AM, Pretorius L (2016) The vegetation of grass lawn wetlands of floodplains and pans in semi-arid regions of South Africa: Description, classification and explanatory environmental factors. South African Journal of Botany 104:215–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2015.11.003
Sieben EJJ, Glen RP, van Deventer H, Dayaram A (2021) The contribution of wetland flora to regional floristic diversity across a wide range of climatic conditions in southern Africa. Biodiversity and Conservation 30(3):575–596. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-020-02104-4
Šmilauer P, Lepš J (2014) Multivariate analysis of ecological data using canoco 5, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Ter Braak CJF, Šmilauer P (2018) Canoco reference manual and user’s guide: software for ordination, version 5.10. Microcomputer Power, Ithaca, 536 pp
Thomas GW (1982) Exchangeable cations. In: Page AL (ed) Methods of soil analysis. Part 2. Chemical and microbiological properties. American Society of Agronomy, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, pp 159–165
Trettin CC, Labovitch L, Lerotholi S, Mercer E (2008) The peatlands of Lesotho: An important ecological and socioeconomic resource. In: Farrel C, Feehan J (eds) After wise use? The Future of Peatlands vol 1, pp 88–91. Proceedings 13th Intl. Peat Congress, 8–13 June, 2008 Tullamore, Ireland. Intl. Peat Society, Jyväskylä, Finland
Turpie J, Barker N, Clark B, Diedericks G, Marneweck G, Allan D, Harvey J, Avenant N, Forsythe K (2014a) State of the Mohale Dam Catchment. Volume I. Synthesis of the 2013/14 Monitoring Studies. Contract 1273: Biological Resources Monitoring within Phase 1 of the LHWP Catchments 2013-14. Submitted by Anchor Environmental Consultants to the Lesotho Highlands Development Authority. Report no. AEC/1540/5. Maseru, Lesotho: Lesotho Highlands Development Authority, 102 pp
Turpie J, Barker N, Clark B, Diedericks G, Marneweck G, Allan D, Harvey J, Avenant N, Forsythe K (2014b) State of the Katse Dam Catchment. Volume I. Synthesis of the 2013/14 Monitoring Studies. Contract 1273: Biological Resources Monitoring within Phase 1 of the LHWP Catchments 2013-14. Submitted by Anchor Environmental Consultants to the Lesotho Highlands Development Authority. Report no. AEC/1540/1. Maseru, Lesotho: Lesotho Highlands Development Authority, 104 pp
van Der Maarel E (1979) Transformation of cover-abundance values in phytosociology and its effects on community similarity. Vegetation 39:97–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00052021
van Oudtshoorn F (2014) Guide to Grasses of Southern Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria
van Tongeren OFR (1995) Cluster analysis. In: Jongman RHG, terBraak CJF, van Tongeren OFR (eds) Data analysis in community and landscape ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge