Updating Animal Welfare Thinking: Moving beyond the “Five Freedoms” towards “A Life Worth Living”

Animals - Tập 6 Số 3 - Trang 21
Carla Forte Maiolino Molento1
1Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University PN 452, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand

Tóm tắt

The Five Freedoms have had major impact on animal welfare thinking internationally. However, despite clear initial statements that the words ‘freedom from’ should indicate ‘as free as possible from’, the Freedoms have come to be represented as absolute or fundamental freedoms, even rights, by some animal advocate and other groups. Moreover, a marked increase in scientific understanding over the last two decades shows that the Freedoms do not capture the more nuanced knowledge of the biological processes that is germane to understanding animal welfare and which is now available to guide its management. For example, the named negative experiences of thirst, hunger, discomfort and pain, and others identified subsequently, including breathlessness, nausea, dizziness, debility, weakness and sickness, can never be eliminated, merely temporarily neutralised. Each one is a genetically embedded element that motivates animals to behave in particular ways to obtain specific life-sustaining resources, avoid or reduce physical harm or facilitate recovery from infection or injury. Their undoubted negativity creates a necessary sense of urgency to respond, without which animals would not survive. Also, the temporary neutralisation of these survival-critical affects does not in and of itself generate positive experience. This questions the commonly held assumption that good animal welfare will result when these internally generated negative affects are minimised. Animals may also experience other negative affects that include anxiety, fear, panic, frustration, anger, helplessness, loneliness, boredom and depression. These situation-related affects reflect animals’ perceptions of their external circumstances. Although they are elicited by threatening, cramped, barren and/or isolated conditions, they can often be replaced by positive affects when animals are kept with congenial others in spacious, stimulus-rich and safe environments which provide opportunities for them to engage in behaviours they find rewarding. These behaviours may include environment-focused exploration and food acquisition activities as well as animal-to-animal interactive activities, all of which can generate various forms of comfort, pleasure, interest, confidence and a sense of control. Animal welfare management should aim to reduce the intensity of survival-critical negative affects to tolerable levels that nevertheless still elicit the required behaviours, and should also provide opportunities for animals to behave in ways they find rewarding, noting that poor management of survival-critical affects reduces animals’ motivation to utilize such rewarding opportunities. This biologically more accurate understanding provides support for reviewing the adequacy of provisions in current codes of welfare or practice in order to ensure that animals are given greater opportunities to experience positive welfare states. The purpose is to help animals to have lives worth living, which is not possible when the predominant focus of such codes is on survival-critical measures. Finally, an updated characterisation of animal welfare that incorporates this more accurate understanding is presented.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Bayvel, A.C.D. (2004, January 23–25). The OIE animal welfare strategic initiative—Progress, priorities and prognosis. Proceedings of the Global Conference on Animal Welfare: An OIE Initiative, Paris, France.

(2009). Farm Animal Welfare in Great Britain: Past, Present and Future, Farm Animal Welfare Council.

McCulloch, 2013, A critique of FAWC’s five freedoms as a framework for the analysis of animal welfare, J. Agric. Environ. Ethics, 26, 959, 10.1007/s10806-012-9434-7

Appleby, M.C., Mench, J.A., Olsson, J.A.S., and Hughes, B.A. (2011). Animal Welfare, CAB International. [2nd ed.].

Webster, J. (2011). Management and Welfare of Farm Animals. UFAW Farm Handbook, Wiley-Blackwell.

Grandin, T. (2015). Improving Animal Welfare: A Practical Approach, CAB International. [2nd ed.].

(2012). Five Freedoms, Available online: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121007104210/http:/www.fawc.org.uk/freedoms.htm.

(2012). Farm Assurance Schemes and Animal Welfare: How Standards Compare, Compassion in World Farming.

(2014). The Five Freedoms, Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Available online: http://kb.rspca.org.au/Five-freedoms-for-animals_318.html.

(2014). The Five Freedoms, Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

Main, 2003, Effect of the RSPCA Freedom Food Scheme on welfare of dairy cattle, Vet. Rec., 153, 227, 10.1136/vr.153.8.227

Webster, J. (2005). Animal Welfare: Limping Towards Eden, Wiley-Blackwell.

Webster, J. (1994). Animal Welfare: A Cool Eye Towards Eden, Blackwell Science.

(1993). Second Report on Priorities for Research and Development in Farm Animal Welfare, Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC), Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.

(2003). Revised Codes for the Welfare of Pigs, Laying Hens, Meat Poultry and Dairy Cattle.

(2010). Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare, Available online: https://www.mpi.govt.nz/protection-and-response/animal-welfare/codes-of-welfare/.

(2012). Animal Welfare (Layer Hens) Code of Welfare, Available online: https://www.mpi.govt.nz/protection-and-response/animal-welfare/codes-of-welfare/.

(2013). Poultry Farming: Welfare Regulations, Available online: https://www.gov.uk/poultry-welfare-guidance-on-the-farm - welfare-code.

Brambell Committee (1965). Report of the Technical Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of Livestock Kept under Intensive Conditions, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Command Paper 2836.

Available online: http://www.dairynz.co.nz/animal/welfare/.

Vet Files: WSPA Vets Leading the Way in Animal Welfare, 2010. Available online: http://www.mosaicoanimal.org/Images/WSPA_Vets_Final-sml_tcm25-22189_tcm46-29365_tcm50-33726.pdf.

(2015). Irish Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Legal Handbook, Available online: http://www.animaladvocacy.ie/legislation/the-five-freedoms/#.VcaM0hyyX-I.

(2015). Farm Animals, Canadian Federation of Humane Societies.

Broom, D.M., and Fraser, A.F. (2015). Domestic Animal Behaviour and Welfare, CABI. [5th ed.].

Armstrong, S.L., and Botzler, R.G. (2008). The Animal Ethics Reader, Routledge/Taylor and Francis Group. [2nd ed.].

Armstrong, S.J., and Botzler, R.G. (2008). The Animal Ethics Reader, Routledge/Taylor and Francis Group. [2nd ed.].

Regan, T. (2004). The Case for Animal Rights, University of California Press. [2nd ed.].

Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_freedoms.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The United Nations, 1948. Available online: http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml.

Yeates, 2008, Assessment of positive welfare: A review, Vet. J., 175, 293, 10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.05.009

Broom, 2010, Cognitive ability and awareness in domestic animals and decisions about obligations to animals, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 126, 1, 10.1016/j.applanim.2010.05.001

Green, 2011, Extending ideas about animal welfare assessment to include ‘quality of life’ and related concepts, N. Z. Vet. J., 59, 316, 10.1080/00480169.2011.610283

Fraser, D. (2008). Understanding Animal Welfare: The Science in Its Cultural Context, Wiley-Blackwell.

Mellor, D.J., Patterson-Kane, E., and Stafford, K.J. (2009). The Sciences of Animal Welfare, Wiley-Blackwell.

Mellor, 2012, Animal emotions, behaviour and the promotion of positive welfare states, N. Z. Vet. J., 60, 1, 10.1080/00480169.2011.619047

Denton, 2009, The role of primordial emotions in the evolutionary origin of consciousness, Conscious. Cogn., 18, 500, 10.1016/j.concog.2008.06.009

Mellor, 2015, Extending the ‘Five Domains’ model for animal welfare assessment to incorporate positive welfare states, Anim. Welfare, 24, 241, 10.7120/09627286.24.3.241

McMillan, 2003, Maximizing quality of life in ill animals, J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc., 39, 227, 10.5326/0390227

Gregory, N.G. (2004). Physiology and Behaviour of Animal Suffering, Blackwell Science.

Panksepp, 2005, Affective consciousness: Core emotional feelings in animals and humans, Conscious. Cogn., 14, 30, 10.1016/j.concog.2004.10.004

Boissy, 2007, Assessment of positive emotions in animals to improve their welfare, Physiol. Behav., 92, 375, 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.02.003

Fraser, 1998, ‘‘Pleasures’’, ‘‘pains’’ and animal welfare: towards a natural history of affect, Anim. Welfare, 7, 383, 10.1017/S0962728600020935

Beausoleil, 2015, Introducing breathlessness as an animal welfare issue, N. Z. Vet. J., 63, 44, 10.1080/00480169.2014.940410

Mellor, 2015, Enhancing animal welfare by creating opportunities for ‘positive affective engagement’, N. Z. Vet. J., 63, 3, 10.1080/00480169.2014.926799

Mason, G., and Rushen, J. (2006). Stereotypic Animal Behaviour: Fundamentals and Implications for Animal Welfare, CAB International. [2nd ed.].

Mellor, 2015, Positive welfare states and promoting environment-focused and animal-to-animal interactive behaviours, N. Z. Vet. J., 63, 9, 10.1080/00480169.2014.926800

Mellor, 2015, Positive animal welfare states and reference standards for welfare assessment, N. Z. Vet. J., 63, 17, 10.1080/00480169.2014.926802

Spinka, 2001, Mammalian play: Training for the unexpected, Quart. Rev. Biol., 76, 141, 10.1086/393866

Held, 2011, Animal play and animal welfare, Anim. Behav., 81, 891, 10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.01.007

Mellor, 2012, Affective states and the assessment of laboratory-induced animal welfare impacts, ALTEX Proc., 1, 445

Mellor, 2014, Development of animal welfare understanding drives change in animal welfare standards, Rev. Sci. Tech. (Off. Int. Epiz.), 33, 121, 10.20506/rst.33.1.2258

Newberry, 1995, Environmental enrichment: Increasing the biological relevance of captive environments, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 44, 229, 10.1016/0168-1591(95)00616-Z

Kagan, 2015, A universal animal welfare framework for zoos, J. Appl. Anim. Welfare Sci., 18, S1, 10.1080/10888705.2015.1075830

Edgar, 2013, Towards a ‘good life’ for farm animals: Development of a resource tier framework to achieve positive welfare for laying hens, Animals, 3, 584, 10.3390/ani3030584

Zoo. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo.

Mellor, D.J., Hunt, S., and Gusset, M. (2015). Caring for Wildlife: The World Zoo and Aquarium Animal Welfare Strategy, WAZA Executive Office.

Koene, 2013, Behavioral ecology of captive species: Using behavioural adaptations to assess and enhance welfare of nonhuman zoo animals, J. Appl. Anim. Welfare Sci., 16, 360, 10.1080/10888705.2013.827917

Portas, T. (2013, January 26). Achieving positive animal welfare outcomes in zoos and aquariums. When Coping Is Not Enough: Promoting Positive Welfare States in Animals, Proceedings of the RSPCA Scientific Seminar 2013, Canberra, Australia.

Siegford, 2013, Multidisciplinary approaches and assessment techniques to better understand and enhance zoo nonhuman animal welfare, J. Appl. Anim. Welfare Sci., 16, 300, 10.1080/10888705.2013.827914

Fraser, 2013, General principles for the welfare of animals in production systems: The underlying science and its application, Vet. J., 198, 19, 10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.06.028

Broom, 1986, Indicators of poor welfare, Br. Vet. J., 142, 524, 10.1016/0007-1935(86)90109-0

Broom, 2010, Animal welfare: An aspect of care, sustainability, and food quality required by the public, J. Vet. Med. Ed., 37, 83, 10.3138/jvme.37.1.83

(2010). European Communities (Welfare of Farmed Animals) Regulations.

Mellor, 2014, Animal Welfare: Focusing on the future, Rev. Sci. Tech. (Off. Int. Epiz.), 33, 1

Garner, 2005, Stereotypies and other abnormal repetitive behaviors: Potential impact on validity, reliability, and replicability of scientific outcomes, ILAR J., 46, 106, 10.1093/ilar.46.2.106

Richter, 2009, Environmental standardization: cure or cause of poor reproducibility in animal experiments?, Nat. Methods, 6, 257, 10.1038/nmeth.1312

Bayne, 2014, Environmental enrichment, outcome variability and scientific validity of laboratory animal studies, Rev. Sci. Tech. (Off. Int. Epiz.), 33, 273, 10.20506/rst.33.1.2282

Garner, 2014, The significance of meaning: Why do over 90% of behavioral neuroscience results fail to translate to humans, and what can we do to fix it?, ILAR J., 55, 438, 10.1093/ilar/ilu047

Baumans, 2005, Environmental enrichment for laboratory rodents and rabbits: Requirements of rodents, rabbits, and research, ILAR J., 46, 162, 10.1093/ilar.46.2.162

Beaver, 1989, Environmental enrichment for laboratory animals, ILAR J., 31, 5, 10.1093/ilar.31.2.5

Baumans, 2013, How to improve housing conditions of laboratory animals: The possibilities of environmental refinement, Vet. J., 195, 24, 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.09.023

Mellor, 2001, Integrating practical, regulatory and ethical strategies for enhancing farm animal welfare, Aust. Vet. J., 79, 762, 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2001.tb10895.x

Mellor, D.J., and Reid, C.S.W. (1994). Improving the Well-Being of Animals in the Research Environment, Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching.

Mellor, 2004, Comprehensive assessment of harms caused by experimental, teaching and testing procedures on live animals, Altern. Lab. Anim., 32, 453, 10.1177/026119290403201s73

Williams, 2006, Revision of a scale for assessing the severity of live animal manipulations, ALTEX, 23, 163

Beausoleil, 2012, Complementary roles for systematic analytical evaluation and qualitative whole animal profiling in welfare assessment for Three Rs applications, ALTEX Proc., 1, 455

Beausoleil, 2015, Advantages and limitations of the ‘Five Domains’ model for assessing animal welfare impacts associated with vertebrate pest control, N. Z. Vet. J., 63, 37, 10.1080/00480169.2014.956832

Hemsworth, 2015, Scientific assessment of animal welfare, N. Z. Vet. J., 63, 24, 10.1080/00480169.2014.966167

Botreau, 2007, Definition of criteria for overall assessment of animal welfare, Anim. Welfare, 16, 225, 10.1017/S0962728600031390

Veissier, 2011, Highlighting ethical decisions underlying the scoring of animal welfare in the Welfare Quality scheme, Anim. Welfare, 20, 89, 10.1017/S0962728600002463

Broom, 1991, Animal welfare: Concepts and measurement, J. Anim. Sci., 16, 4167, 10.2527/1991.69104167x

Morton, 1985, Guidelines on the recognition of pain, distress and discomfort in experimental animals and an hypothesis for assessment, Vet. Rec., 116, 431, 10.1136/vr.116.16.431

Aitken, I.D. (2007). Diseases of Sheep, Blackwell Science. [4th ed.].

Appleby, M.C., Mench, J.A., Olsson, I.A.S., and Hughes, B.O. (2011). Animal Welfare, CAB International. [2nd ed.].

Spruijt, 2001, A concept of welfare based on reward evaluating mechanisms in the brain: anticipatory behaviour as an indicator for the state of reward systems, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 72, 145, 10.1016/S0168-1591(00)00204-5

Moberg, G.P., and Mench, J.A. (2000). The Biology of Animal Stress: Basic Principles and Implications for Welfare, CAB International.

Young, R.J. (2003). Environmental Enrichment for Captive Animals, Blackwell Science Ltd.

Wemelsfelder, 1997, The scientific validity of subjective concepts in models of animal welfare, Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 53, 75, 10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01152-5

Appleby, M.C., Mench, J.A., Olsson, I.A.S., and Hughes, B.O. (2011). Animal Welfare, CAB International. [2nd ed.].

McMillan, F.D. (2005). Mental Health and Well-Being in Animals, Blackwell Publishing.

Kirkwood, 2007, Quality of life: The heart of the matter, Anim. Welfare, 16, 1, 10.1017/S0962728600031663

Yeates, 2011, Is ‘a life worth living’ a concept worth having?, Anim. Welfare, 20, 397, 10.1017/S0962728600002955

Webster, 2015, Different animal welfare orientations towards some key research areas of current relevance to pastoral dairy farming in New Zealand, N. Z. Vet. J., 63, 31, 10.1080/00480169.2014.958117

Cronin, 2014, Lessons learned from past experience with intensive livestock management systems, Rev. Sci. Tech. (Off. Int. Epiz.), 33, 139, 10.20506/rst.33.1.2256

Coleman, 2014, Training to improve stockperson beliefs and behaviour towards livestock enhances welfare and productivity, Rev. Sci. Tech. (Off. Int. Epiz.), 33, 131, 10.20506/rst.33.1.2257

Hemsworth, P.G., and Coleman, G.J. (2011). Human-Livestock Interactions: The Stockperson and the Production and Welfare of Intensively-Farmed Animals, CABI. [2nd ed.].

Fraser, 1997, A scientific conception of animal welfare that reflects ethical concerns, Anim. Welfare, 6, 187, 10.1017/S0962728600019795

Fraser, 2003, Assessing animal welfare at the farm and group level: The interplay of science and values, Anim. Welfare, 12, 433, 10.1017/S0962728600026038

Nordenfelt, L. (2006). Animal and Human Health and Welfare: A Comparative Philosophical Analysis, CABI.

Broom, 2008, Welfare assessment and relevant ethical decisions: Key concepts, ARBS Ann. Rev. Biomed. Sci., 10, T79

Fisher, 2009, Defining animal welfare—Does consistency matter?, N. Z. Vet. J., 57, 71, 10.1080/00480169.2009.36880

Thông tin
Thông tin xuất bản

Animals

Tập 6 Số 3

21

Thông tin tác giả